FYBA Sociology SEM -II-munotes

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1Unit -1
SOCIALIZATION: AGENTS, ROLE OF
SOCIALIZATION, SELF AND
SOCIALIZATION
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Agents ofSocialization
1.3 Role ofSocialization
1.4 Self andSocialization
1.5 Significance ofSocialization
1.6 Summary
1.7 Questions
1.8 References
1.0OBJECTIVES :
Toacquaint thestudents with meaning ofsocialization and its
role
Tofamiliarize thestudents with theagents ofsocialization
Tounderstand theconcept ofselfand socialization
1.1INTRODUCTIO N:
What makes uswhat weare?
Isitourgenes that weareborn with ortheenvironment in
which wegrew up? Infact, scholars have traditionally debated over
the relative importance ofbiological inheritance and role of
environment inhuman development. There has always been two
camps Nature vsNurture i.eheredity vsenvironment. Today,
scholars have recognized theinteraction ofboth these factors in
shaping human personality.munotes.in

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2Case ofFeral Children:
Feral children are wild children who grow upwithout any
socialization. One oftheearliest case offeral child was reported by
Kingsley Davis, 1940. Davis discussed twoferal cases ofIsabelle
and Anna. When Anna was discovered inanattic she was five
years ofage. She could barely learn fewbasic lifeskillsbefore she
died attheage of10.Incase ofIsabelle though she was isolated
like Anna buthad herdeaf and dumb mother forhercompany.
When she was found atthesixyears ofage she picked upbasic
human social skills and was able toeventually attendschool.
According toDavis thedifference inoutcome inboth these cases is
due tonutrition and the fact that Isabelle had some social
interaction with her deaf and dumb mother. Thus primary
socialization isessential fordevelopment ofchildren. There is
complete lack ofsense ofself concept, pattern ofmultiple
attachments and significant others, awareness about self and
others, group and society incase offeral children. There arefilms
that have portrayed thecomplexity ofbeing aferal human child,
particularly when aferal child attempts tosocialize with other
members ofsociety forexample The Jungle Book, isbelieved tobe
inspired byreallifeaccounts ofaferal child raised byanimals.
Case oftwins:
Identical twins Oscar and Jack isaclassic case ofinfluence
ofheredity. Oscar and Jack were separated soon after their birth.
They were raised indifferent cultural settings. Oscar was brought
upbyhismaternal grandmother under theinfluence oftheHitler
youth movement inNazi Germany wherehelearnt tohate Jews.
Histwin brother Jack was raised bytheir Jews father inTrinidad.
Jack became member ofanIsraeli Kibbutz and later also joined
Israeli army. When thetwin were reunited, decades later they had
some startling similarities: both wore wire rimmed glass and
moustaches. They both had liking forspicy food and sweet liquor,
were absent minded, sported pocket shirts with epaulets, had habit
offalling asleep while watching television, dipped buttered toast in
their coffee, read magazi nes from back tofront and soon.They
also differed inmany aspects like Jack was aworkaholic while
Oscar enjoyed leisure time activities. Oscar was traditionalist who
was domineering towards women while Jack was liberal and moremunotes.in

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3accepting offeminism. Jackwas very proud ofhisJewish lineage
while Oscar never mentioned itatall.
Primary result from thistwin study reveals that both genetic
factors and socializing experience play significant role inhuman
development.
Check your progress:
1.Write anote ofNature vsNurture.
Socialization:
Socialization isaprocess oflearning which islifelong. It
begins atbirth andendatdeath ofanindividual. Itinvolves different
forces that change individual’s lifecourses and self-image. Itis
through theprocess ofsocialization people learn about social roles.
Social roles aresocial expectations that anindividual inaparticular
position follows. The process ofsocialization isculture specific but
itdoesn’t mean that one culture issuperior toanother. Itisa
process through which people acquire essential skills and
education toplay their part inthesocial system.
Schaefer defines itasaprocess through which people learn
thevalues, attitudes and appropriate actions asamember ofa
particular culture. ForMacIver, itisaprocess whereby social being
establish broad and profound relationship with each other, they
become more bound upwith and perceptive ofthepersonality of
others and themselves and establish acomplex structure ofbroa d
andclose association.
Young explain socialization astheprocess ofinducting the
individual intothesocial and cultural world, making him orher
member ofaparticular society and itsdifferent groups and also
make himorheraccept thenorms andvalues ofthatsociety.munotes.in

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4Characteristic ofSocialization:
Itisalifelong process which begins incradle and end ingrave.
Itnever stops people keep learning throughout their lifethough
there capacity toabsorb may slow down asthey grow older.
Itisaprocess whereby abundle offlesh and blood ischanged
intoasocial being.
Societal norms, values and expectations aretransmitted from
onegeneration toanother through theprocess ofsocialization.
The process ofsocialization differs from society tosociety.
Stages ofSocialization:
Ateach stage oflifepeople need tolearn tomake changes soasto
deal with challenges and prospects inlife. Itistheprocess of
socialization that help people toundergo through thetransitory
phase oftheir lifeandbeadaptive tothechanging environment.
This process oflearning passes through thefollowing stages:
1. Infancy andChildhood (0-14years):
The first characteristics that achild identifies about self is
gender and age. Bythetime thechild istwoyears ofage almost all
them identify themselves asagirloraboy. They also start to
identify themselves with concrete andobservable features such asI
amelder brother, Ihave younger sister and express themselves
likeIliketoplay cricket. Thus they begin toseethemselves through
observable andverifiable features.
Once thechild reaches childhood, describes self clearly so
instead ofspecifying the activities start describing broadly for
example Ilikesports instead cricket. Atthisage they start defin ing
them and others interms oftraits and abilities forexample friendly,
loving. Atthisage children compare themselves with others and on
thebasis ofthese comparisons draw inferences.
2. Adolescence (15-20years):
Atthis stage the children define them selves interms of
abstract qualities which stress their perceived psychological
characteristics and emotions. They adopt forrefined and analytical
approach todefine self. This stage isalso characterise byconflict
because onone hand thechildren trytogoaway from parental
control and onthe other they find that they cannot escape
dependence ontheir parents. However, theparents today give theirmunotes.in

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5adolescent children freedom tochoose their educational career, life
partners and soon.They want them tobeaccept new roles and
responsibilities due towhich the adolescence find themselves
pressed.
3. Adulthood (21-60years):
Adulthood isastage where thechild becomes independent
and isready tostart their own family. Itismost crucial part ofan
indivi dual’s lifebecause most oftheimportant decision oflifeis
taken atthisstage such asprofession, marriage etc., The individual
has totakes many new and challenging roles forexample
employee, spouse and parents and learn toadapt tothese new
roles andpositions.
Adulthood can bedivided into two stages: the young
adulthood and thematured adulthood. This period ischaracterised
byexcitement and sexual development. This also aperiod where
anindividual start toexplore political and religious affiliation beside
sexual. While the mature adulthood stands forself-evaluation.
People may feel that years arepassing and that they have not
achieved much. Itisatransitory period ofindividual’s lifeand
therefore require deep internalization ofnorms, values andattitudes
thatmay bedifferent from what they have learnt.
4. Oldage(60andabove):
Itislast stage oftransition that may begin after sixty.
However, there isnouniversally accepted definition ofoldage it
differ from society tosociety. Atthis stage people start their
retirement plan. People find itdifficult toreadily accept change.
Those who areable tomanage well they remain social and active
inoldagealso.
This isthemost difficult period ofpeople’s lifeespecially
when they are economically dependent ontheir children. In
traditional agricultural societies oldpeople were respected and they
had great role toplay inthefamily level and thecommunity level.
But infast changing world there knowledge becomes outdated
sometimes theyarelefttolivealone andfetch forthemselves.
Socialization alifelong process:
Socialization isnotone time affair itislifelong process.
People are socialized continuously throughout their lifethroughmunotes.in

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6various agents ofsocialization, family beingthefirst agent and
mother thefirstteacher. Aspeople grow they come across various
challenges and transitions intheir life. People keep taking new
roles and shed theoldthrough theprocess ofre-socialization for
example taking upjob.
Check yourprogress:
1. What issocialization?
2. Explain stages ofsocialization.
1.2AGENTS OFSOCIALIZATION:
Socialization helps individual tounderstand their social roles
better and successfully function insociety. How theprocess of
socializatio ntakes place? How individual learn about thematerial
and non-material aspects oftheir culture? Ittakes place through
social interaction with various primary agencies ofsocialization
such asfamily, peer group and school etc.Social agents arethose
people orgroups that influence individuals concept ofself,
behaviour, attitudes andorientation towards life.
Family:
Family isthe one ofthe vital socializing agent. Parents,
siblings, grandparents and extended family members play
significant roleinthelifeofachild. They teach child how toperformmunotes.in

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7various tasks such aseating, toilet training, washing, basic
communication skills, values, and relationship with others like
friends, family. Formost oftheindividual socialization begins inthe
family. Itisthrough family thechild learns about itsculture and
identify itself with thecommunity heorshe belong to.Achild also
gets hisorhersocial status through hisfamily. The family assist in
thesocial, emotional and physical development ofchild .Ifachild
lacks afamily inhisorherformative years oflifethen socialization
forsuch child becomes difficult example feral children. Asthechild
grows other agents ofsocialization such aspeer group, school and
mass media become influential agen tofsocialization.
School:
Like family, school isalso one ofthe primary agents of
socialization. The school isaminiature society ithas taken over
some oftheearlier functions offamily. The child spends major part
ofgrowing upyears inschool. Inschool through various curricular
and extracurricular activities thechild learns social skills, roles and
values which isnecessary foroverall development ofchild. The
school provides both formal and informal education which helps the
child todevelop hisintellectual capacity, acquire social skills, and
become financially independent andresponsible citizen.
Peer group:
Apeer group refers toasocial group having members with
common social positions, age and interests. Inpeer group there is
free flowofideas and emotions, achild may learns good habits or
bad habits. Achild may experience peer pressure toalter hisorher
behaviour, values attitudes and habits toconform tothepeer group
norms. Itishere thechild escapes supervision ofparents and
teachers andlearn todevelop relation onhisown. Inpeer group the
child learns toget along with others, learns moral values and
norms, learns appropriate social andcultural roles andgender roles
andbecome independent.
Work Place:
Workplace isanother important agent ofsocialization. Asan
adult anindividual spend significant part oftheir lifeatworkplace.
Atworkplace anindividual come incontact with people from
different social, cultural religious, ethnic and economic background.
The individual learn torespect diversity andbecome tolerant.munotes.in

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8Successful work place socialization enable thenew entrant
toadapt easily and fitintheorganization culture. This positively
influence work motivation, job satisfaction and improves work
efficie ncyandthus increase productivity.
Atworkplace theindividual acquires necessary social skills,
knowledge, and take over organizational roles. Through workplace
socialization theindividual learns toadopt toworkplace behaviour,
develop necessary skillsand ability toadapt tothenorms and
values ofthework place group.
Check your progress
1. Discuss school andpeer group asanagents ofsocialization.
2. Explain the role offamily and work place asagents of
Socialization.
1.3ROLE OFSOCIAL IZATION:
The role ofsocialization istoprepare individual forsocial life
byacquiring shared norms, values, belief system and behaviour of
their society. Itplays significant role inmaintenance ofsociety and
well-being oftheindividual.
Arnett (1995) presented three fundamental goals of
socialization:
To teach individual tocontrol impulses and develop a
conscience. Socialization teaches individual tocontrol their
impulses and develop conscience.The individual achieve thisby
learning tounderstan dwhat isexpected ofthem bypeoplemunotes.in

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9around them. Thus they learn tointernalize theexpectations of
others andrationalize their impulses anddevelop aconscience.
Toprepare forsocial roles. Socialization prepares individual for
social roles example genderroles, marriage, parenthood.
To cultivate shared sources ofmeaning and values.
Socialization promotes shared sources ofmeaning and values.
Itisculture specific because individual learn toidentify what is
vital andvalued within their culture.
1.4SELF AND SOCIALIZATION:
Allhuman beings are born with genetic makeup and
biological traits. However, they grow and develop through social
interactions. Intheopinion ofvarious scholars theprocess ofself-
development actasaprecursor tounderstand how“self” becomes
socialized. The self isadistinct identity that sets individual apart
from others. Itisnotstatic, itcontinues todevelop and change
throughout life. One ofthe earliest sociological approach to
understand selfwas Cooley’s looking glassself. Inthewords of
Gecas and Schwable (1983) looking glass selfistheunderstanding
that “ourselfconcepts areformed asreflections oftheresponses
and evaluations ofothers inourenvironment”. Cooley expanded
thebelief that welearn about ourselves byinteracting with others.
Our perception about ourselves therefore comes not only from
direct contemplation ofour personal qualities butalso from our
impression about how others view us.Cooley applied theterm
“looking glass self toexpress thattheself istheproduct ofour
social interaction”. The process ofdeveloping self-identity goes
through three phases:
Weimagine how wepresent ourselves infront ofothers such
asfriends andrelatives.
Weimagine how others examine usforexample whilebuying
jeans weimagine how ourfriends willlook atit.
We develop some kind ofimpression about ourselves i.e.
self-concept.
Afavorable image inthe“social mirror ”leads todevelopment
ofpositive self-concept and anegative image leads todevelopm ent
ofnegative self-concept. This development process iscontinuousmunotes.in

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10and lifelong. Even ifwe misinterpret others’ view, the
misinterpretation become part ofself-concept.
The elusive yetcritical aspect ofCooley’s looking glass self
isthat theself-develop from anindividual imagination ofhow others
view himorher. Asaresult anindividual candevelop self-identities
based onincorrect perceptions ofhow others view himorher.
G.H. Mead agreed with Cooley’s concept oflooking glass
selfbutadded thatplay iscrucial forthedevelopment ofself. Inhis
Theory ofstages ofself hecame upwith auseful model ofthe
process through which theself develops, passing through three
successive stages:
Preparatory stage: During thisstage children mimic thepeople
around them with whom they interact continuously forexample
parents orsiblings. Thus selfisasocial product which develops
from therelation with others. Asthey grow older, they willmore
aptly use symbols tocommunicate with others byintera cting
with friends and relatives also now adays watching various
programmes ontelevision. The children willcontinue tousethis
form ofcommunication throughout their life.
Play Stage: Inthis stage the children develop skills to
communicate using symb olsand gradually become aware of
social relationship. They start pretending tobeother people
some time tobemother, teacher, police man, Iron Man,
Shaktimaan Chotta Bheem etc., One oftheimportant aspect of
this stage according toMead is“role taking ”.Itisaprocess
whereby achild mentally assume theperspective ofanother
and responds through that imagined point ofview forexample
playing house -house orteacher.
Game Stage: Here, thechild matures and learns torespond to
“generalized others”. Inother words inthis stage children not
only learn toperceive their own social position but also of
“significant others” around them. By“generalized others” Mead
meant theattitude, thepoint ofview and expectation ofsociety
asawhole that achild takeninto consideration inhisorher
behaviour. While “significant others” refers tothose with whom
the child isclosely related orcontinuously interact such as
parents, siblings, friends and teachers. Thus the child gets
Social Identity.munotes.in

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11Meads theory ofself, made significant contribution in
understanding ofsocial self. The twofacets ofselfaccording tohim
is“I”and “Me” .The “I”isthecreative and spontaneous aspect of
self, ontheother hand the“Me” ispassive aspect ofself that
develops from theinternalized expectation ofthesociety. However,
despite thedifference these two facets ofself compliment each
other. The development ofboth these aspect ofselfisessential not
only forindividual butalso forthesociety because society needs
notonly creativity butalso some sortofconformity.
Ervin Goffman in“InthePresentation ofSelf inEveryday
life”, views social relationship dramaturgically, that isfrom the
perspective oftheoretical performances (Eklin, 1958). According to
Goffman ineveryday lifethere isscript, roles, action, costumes and
audience. People behave likeanactors onstage playing variety of
roles. The audience are other individuals who watch theactors
performing roles and respond totheir performances. Similar to
theat rical performances, insocial interaction toothere isregion
where theindividual performsthe “front stage and back stage”. A
“front stage ”behaviour iswhere theindividual performs infront of
their audience tocreate positive impression that isimpress ion
management. Itisroutinized behaviour based onlearned social
script that isinfluenced bycultural norms forexample airhostess.
In“back stage” performance the individual isrelaxed and is
himselfor herself because there isnoone toobserve him orher.
The individual isrelieved oftheroles, feels comfortable and ishis
orhertrue self’s example when athome.
Check your progress:
1. Describe roleofsocialization.munotes.in

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122. Write anote onselfandsocialization.
1.5SIGNIFICANCE OFSOCI ALIZATION:
The process ofsocialization iscrucial forboth theindividual
and the society. Because individual and their social world are
interconnected and itcannot separated. The society perpetuates
itself byteaching the values, beliefs and culture toitsnew
members. Ifthenew entrant does notinternalize itthan itisdifficult
forhim orher toexist. Similarly itisessential that theculture,
values and belief system aretransmitted from one generation to
another forthesurvival ofthesociety.
Social interaction gives meaning tothelifeofindividuals as
they begin toseethemselves through thelens ofothers and come
toknow who they areand learn tofitinto theworld around them.
They learn about the basic material and non-material culture,
everything from how towalk, talk, dress appropriately, how toeat,
what toeatand when toeat, learn language etc., Thus without
socialization individuals may nothave sense ofselfand would not
beable tofunction associal being. Therefore socializat ion is
essential forsound development ofindividual andsociety.
1.6SUMMARY
There iscontinues debate over what determines human
behaviour? Nature orNurture. Numerous study offeral children
brings tolight that though heredity plays and important rolebut
society tooplays significant part tomake people human. People
acquire identity ofself, who they areand what makes them through
socialization, learning language and from various forms ofhuman
contact. The theoretical insights ofCooley, Mead and Goffmanmunotes.in

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13demonstrate how people acquire morality, reasoning skills and
develop their personality and sense ofselfthrough theprocess of
social interaction andobservation.
People learn tothink, act, and behave through various
agents ofsocialization. Ithelp inthedevelopment ofself-concept,
attitudes, societal norms, behaviour and orientation towards life.
The major agents ofsocialization arefamily, school, mass media
and work place. These agents ofsocialization reinforce social and
cultural norms andvalues.
Despite strong and profound impact ofsocialization on
people, people have selfandtheselfisdynamic. People make their
own choices based onreasoning and logic. People arenotpassive
receiver butactively participate insocial construction oftheir self.
People change themselves byinteracting with various agents and
ideas.
1.7QUESTIONS:
1.What isSocialization? Discuss various agents ofsocialization.
2.Articulate Cooley’s theory ofdevelopment ofself.
3.Examine Meads andGoffman’s theory ofself.
4.Socialization isalifelong process. Comment.
1.8REFERENCES:
1.Feldman, D.C, 1981, The multiple socialization oforganization
members, Academy ofManagement Review, April, Vol.6(2).
2.Gecas, Vand Schwalbe, M,1983, Beyond thelooking glass
self: Social Structure and Efficacy Based Self Esteem, Soc.
Psycho Q.June, Vol.46(2).
3.Foster, S.L., and Ritchey, W.L, 1979, Issues intheAssessment
ofSocial Competence inChildren, Journal ofApplied Behavioral
Analysis, Issue 12.
4.Frederick, E,1958,Marriage and Family Living, National
Council onFamily Relations, Nov, Vol. 20(4).
5.Jeffrey, JArnett, 1995, Broad and Narrow Socialization: The
family intheContext ofaCultural Theory, Journal ofMarriage
andFamily, Aug, Vol.57(3).munotes.in

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146.MacIver and Page, 1974, Society: AnIntroductory Analysis,
London, Basingstoke, Macmillan.
7.Macionis, J,2012, Sociology: Aglobal introduction, 5thedition,
Harlow, England; New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
8.Schaefer, R.T, 2006, Sociology, New York, McGrawHill .
9.Kimball, Young, 1930, The Social Antecedents ofHuman
Behaviour, inSocial Psychology: An analysis ofsocial
behaviour, New York: Alfred AKnopf.

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15Unit -2
SOCIALIZATION: ANTICIPATORY
SOCIALIZATION, RE-SOCIALIZATION,
GENDER SOCIALIZATION AND
POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Anticipatory Socialization
2.3 Re-socialization
2.4 Gend erSocialization
2.5 Approaches tounderstand Gender Socialization
2.6 Political Socialization
2.7 Forms ofpolitical socialization
2.8 State Society Interface andPolitical Socialization
2.9 Summary
2.10 Questions
2.11 References
2.0OBJEC TIVES
To acquaint the students with meaning ofanticipatory
socialization andre-socialization
Tounderstand theconcept ofgender socialization
Tofamiliarize thestudents with political socialization
2.1INTRODUCTION:
Socialization isaprocess tocreate social imagination. It
intersect with ourcultural and personal experiences and helps to
develop ourself. The development ofself iscontinues process itmunotes.in

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16begins incradle and ends ingrave. However thetwobasic types of
socialization isprimary andsecondary.
Primary andSecondary Socialization:
Primary socialization refers tosocialization that occurs when
achild learns thebehaviour, attitudes, values and actions asa
members ofasociety. Itistherefore called aschildhood
socialization. Itisessential formental and physical development of
achild. Ittakes place within family. Itismost basic form of
socialization. Whatever the child learns through the process of
primary socialization stays with himorherforlife.
Secondary socializa tionrefers totheprocess oflearning the
appropriate attitudes, behaviours and values asmember ofsmaller
group outside the family. Itbegins when anindividual start
interacting with social agents other than family example educational
institute. Itisalso called asadult socialization. Secondary
socialization isimportant because itshow theway anindividual
learn about thenature ofitssocial world beyond hisorherprimary
contacts.
Primary socialization plays aprominent role inchildhood and
secondary socialization isprominent inadulthood. Socialization
thus isasocial process comprising interactions between people. It
takes place inmultiple contexts due tocontact with various social
groups. The most prominent contributors tothe process of
socialization arefamily, peer group, educational institutes and work
place. Each ofthese agents have values, attitudes and culture that
anindividual must acquire inorder togain acceptance inthegroup.
Socialization hasgreat impact ontheway anindividual think about
aparticular problem andapproach those problem. Itisacontinuous
process and people undergo anticipatory and re-socialization
throughout their lifecourse.
2.2ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION:
The term anticipatory socialization was first used byRobert
Merton inhisstudy ofUSmilitary in1949. Itrefers totheprocess
whereby people embrace thevalues and standards ofgroups that
they arewilling tojoin, soastoconfirm their entry into thegroup
and aptly interact once they areaccepted inthegroup. Itmeansmunotes.in

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17changing one’s behaviour and outlook inorder toprepare forsome
new role.
Merton and Kitt(1950) assert that anticipatory socialization
occurs either bypush orpull. Bypush they meant forces that push
people away from certain roles orbehaviour linked with that
particular role; pullmeans that forces which pulls people towards a
specific role orbehaviour linked tothat particular role forexample
threat ofbeing punished forcopying during exam keeps students
away from using unfair means. On the other hand high pay
package, social prestige, better future prospects may pullpeople to
select certain careers forexample craze formedicine, engineering
orMBA inIndia.
People’s social identity isdeveloped through anticipa tory
socialization. Both thepull and thepush factors associated with
anticipatory socialization help people todevelop positive social
identity. Ithelps people tokeep negativity intheform ofbeliefs,
values and attitudes atbay and aidinachieving desirable social
identity.
2.3RE-SOCIALIZATION:
Itinvolves theprocess toacquire new setofnorms, values,
attitudes and behaviour that brings about transition from one roles
tothe other. Itisthe most common form ofsocialization as
throughout lifewekeep onacquiring new experiences and roles.
Re-socialization canbring about minor ormajor changes inthelife
ofindividual example joining new jobormigration toanother country
where themigrants hastolearn theculture, values and practices of
thehost country sothat heorshe can fitin.Re-socialization is
natural, throughout lifepeople acquire new sets ofvalues and
behaviour and discard the old for example marriage and
parenthood noformal training isrequired. But insome case re-
socializ ation isessential totake over new roles and challenges,
people have togothrough formal training and show that they have
learned thecode ofconduct, appropriate values and attitudes tofit
inthenew roles. Thus re-socialization isdifferent from theformative
socialization asre-socialization redirects individual’s development.munotes.in

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18Re-socialization can bevoluntary orinvoluntary. Involuntary
socialization people ontheir own participate inprograms toreinvent
themselves forexample drug addict register self forrehabilitation
program. Involuntary socialization isalso called asimposed
socialization. Itmeans people are forced toundergo training to
learn tounlearn certain norms, values and attitudes forexample
military boot camp.
Re-socialization, De-socialization andTotal Institutions:
Re-socialization israpid and brings about basic changes in
once life. Itmeans discarding theearlier norms and values and
learning thenew which may becompletely different from theformer
norms andvalues. De-socialization occurs before re-socialization. It
means shedding theprevious beliefs, values and attitudes sothat
onemay take uppartly ortotally new norms, values and attitudes in
order tobepart ofanew group. The process ofre-socialization and
de-socialization takes place intotal institutions.
Goffman coined theterm total institutions. Hereferred to
institutions such as concentration camps, mental hospitals,
boarding schools and religious cult astotal institutions. Insuch
institutions people have very limited relation with theoutside world.
They areunder close surveillance and control oftheagents ofthe
institutions. People have toforgo theearlier roles, identity, values
and norms and acquire thenew values, attitudes and norms. Often
punish ment and rewards areused forpeople tolearn new roles,
statuses and values.The important characteristics oftotal
institutions are:
The staff ofthe institutions administer and supervise the
activities fortheinmates.
The lifeofinmates intotal institutions are standardized for
example uniforms, same food andactivities.
The inmate’s behaviour and daily activities are regulated by
formal rules.
Through theprocess ofre-socialization thestaff ofthetotal
institution attempt tobring about changes inthepersonality ofthe
inmates. The inmates areisolated and confined tobarracks, locked
doors, tinywindows andfences even visitors arenotallowed tovisit
frequently and there islimitation onaccess tophone calls. Forthemunotes.in

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19inmates theinstitution becomes their world, thisallows thestaff to
bring about expected change inbehaviour oftheinmates.
The impact ofre-socialization cannot besame foreveryone.
This isevident from feral cases where some feral children were re-
socialized while inother case theattempt ofre-socialization failed.
Ifanindividual iskept foralong period inconfined and controlled
environment that hampers hisorher ability tothink and act
independently. This process iscalled institutionalization and ithas
negative effect onthepersonality oftheindividual. The individual
once outoftotal institution find itdifficult toadapt totheworld
outside.
Check your progress:
1. What isAnticipatory Socialization?
2. Explain theterm Re-socialization.
3. Explain voluntary andinvoluntary re-socialization.munotes.in

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204. Write anote onroleoftotal institutions inre-socialization.
2.4GENDER SOCIALIZATION:
Gender socialization isaprocess bywhich children of
different sexes aresocialized inagender spec ificroles.Ryle (2011)
explain gender socialization associal learning concerning gender,
anditconsists oftwointerrelated andoften used constructs; gender
norms and gender identity. Gender norms means thesetofrules
that isappropriate feminine and masculine behaviour inaparticular
culture and gender identity ishow people identify themselves as
being female ormale. Itismultidimensional concept that occurs
over aperiod oftime andpeople acquire itthrough gender norms of
their society andsubs equently itbecomes their gender identity.
The children learn what itmeans tobeafemale ormale
through socialization. Itstarts with the birth ofchild when the
physician says itisa‘baby girlorababy boy’ and followed by
parents welcoming their bundle ofjoybydecorating thenursery in
pink foragirlwith flowers, softtoys and butterflies. The girlchild is
dressed infrilly dresses. The parents donoteven realize that they
aretraining their child tobecome perfect women. The child learns
thataperfect women should bepresentable, hospitable, rear
children andsoon.
Conversely, theparents prepare thenursery ofaboy by
painting itinblue, decorating itwith animals orsomething that
represent toughness. There toys comprises ofguns, cars,video
games, etc,. They often were jeans, Tshirts and shoes. Atvery
young agethey learn thatPapa earns andmamma cooks. Boys are
not atalltrained indoing household chores. There isalways
pressure ontheboys toportray themselves asbrave, prote ctive
and macho. These stereotypical gender roles can beobserved in
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21example women become gynecologist while men become heart
specialist, similarly primary school teachers aremostly women and
men inteaching profession generally teach mathematics and
science orgirls pursue artsandboys’ commerce andscience.
What aregender stereotypes?
The term gender stereotype refers togeneralized outlook
about characteristics ortheroles that areperformed orpossessed
orought tobepossessed bymen and women. Itisdetrimental for
both men and women asitrestricts their capacity todevelop their
personality, capabilities, career choices, and make decisions about
their lives. Itviolates their funda mental rights andfreedom ofchoice
forexample marital rape inmany countries isnot criminalized
because society view women assexual property oftheir men.
Kane (1996) argues thatchildren atvery young ageoftwoto
three become aware oftheir gender roles. Bythetime they reach
four theidea ofculturally aptgender roles isfully ingrained inthem.
Children learn topick upthese roles through the process of
socialization, aprocess through which thechildren acquire societal
beliefs, norms, values and attitudes. Children acquire their gender
roles through theagencies ofsocialization such asfamily, school,
peer group and mass media. Each ofthese agencies of
socialization attempts tostrengthen gender stereotypical roles.
Check your progress:
1. Wha tisgender socialization?
2. Explain gender stereotype?munotes.in

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222.5APPROACHES TO UNDERSTAND GENDER
SOCIALIZATION:
Various fields have contributed tothe understanding of
gender socialization such asfeminist studies, queer movement,
and advancement inthe understanding ofsocial and biological
phenomena and soon.The attempt tounderstand theconcept of
gender socialization originated from thediscipline ofpsychology.
Some ofthesignificant contribution ofthediscipline ofpsychology
areasfollows:
Social learning: Gender socialization takes place through
social learning from theenvironment such asfamily, school. An
individual learn totune itsbehaviour with theenvironment.
Children asagent: Children areactive agents ofsocialization,
they have cognitive ability toprocess and internalize specific
information.
Stages ofsocialization: Different stages ofsocialization
surface from individuals maturing cognitive capacity and their
social experiences.
Integration: Foraninclusive understandin gofsocialization itis
necessary tointegrate cognitive motivational factor and socio -
structural factor.
Sociological understanding ofgender socialization:
The sociological viewpoint stress that gender islearned
through socialization. Itrejects biolo gically deterministic tradition for
differences ingender and gendered behaviour. One ofthemost
important perspective isstructural functionalism.
Structural functionalism focusses onthe role ofsocial
structures indefining thecontours ofthesociet yand organizations.
Itconsiders family asthecore component ofsociety and gender
roles within marriage assumes prominent place. According tothis
perspective gender roles were well defined before thepre-industrial
societies where men would and dowork what soever outside the
home and women took care ofdomestic chores. These roles were
thought tobefunctional aswomen were unable totake over
responsibilities outside due totheir physical constraint such as
pregnancy, birth ofchild and nursing. Once these roles weremunotes.in

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23established itwas passed onfrom generation togeneration and it
served aseffective and efficient means tokeep family asasystem
functioning.
For functionalist gender roles contribute forstable social
relations. Inthe view point ofTalcott Parsons women perform
expressive role bymanaging household chores and taking care of
emotional need ofthefamily members and nurturing, men perform
instrumental roleofearning andproviding forthefamily and making
important decisions inthefamily.
For G.Murdock this arrangement was practical and
convenient aswomen would take over domestic responsibilities
and men would concentrate onwork outside home. Heconsidered
thisarrangement logical fortheorganization ofsociety.
Conflict persp ective seesociety asastruggle fordominance
among social groups and these social groups compete forscarce
resources. They view men asthedominant group and women as
subordinates. For conflict theorist social issues arises when the
dominant group oppre sses the subordinate group. The conflict
perspective stresses ontherole ofcapitalism, social class and
power onshaping relation within thefamily and marriage. Engels
points out that same bourgeoisie and proletariat (owner and
worker) relationships prevail infamily asisseen inthe labour
market. Women take over therole ofworker and men theowner.
This isbecause women are dependent onmen toacquire
resources and thecondition ofwomen iseven worst when she is
financially dependent onher spouse. Men’s work isvalued but
women whether she works athome orshe isinpaid work itisnot
valued atall.However, thecontemporary conflict theorists suggest
that women when inpaid work can gain power inthe family
structure and this would lead tothe creation ofdemocratic
environment athome butstillthey willhave tostilltake over the
major domestic responsibilities than men.
Interactionist apply micro approach tounderstand gender.
Forthem gender inequality exists due tosocialization process and
every dayinteraction and useofsymbols. Inthewords ofWest and
Zimmerman wearealways ‘doing gender’. Itmeans that gender is
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24Another important contribution tounderstand gender
socialization comesfrom queer theory. This perspective examines
issues ofsexuality, power and marginalized people. Itisinfluenced
bythework ofpost-structural theorists likeFriedrich Nietzsche and
Miche lFoucault and psychoanalysis. The queer viewpoint
questions gender stereotypes and did not believe inbinary
categories such asmasculine and feminine, male orfemale,
straight orgay. Forthem gender isless about body andmore about
discourses, rituals andpractices.
Feminist view ongender:
Simone deBeauvoir claimed that women arenotborn but
rather they become, through theprocess ofgender socialization.
They learn feminine traits and behaviour through theprocess of
socialization. Various branches offeminism attempts toexplain the
cause ofgender inequality rooted insocial processes such as
patriarchy, capitalism, sexism and racism. InKate Millets view
gender differences arecultural rather than biological and itresults
from differential treatment given tomen and women through the
process ofgender social ization. Inheropinion gender issum total
oftheparents, peers and thecultural notion ofwhat isaptformen
and women bytheway ofstatus, worth, interests, temperament,
gestures and expressions. Women are socialized toplay
subordinate roles, passiv e,docile and ignorant. Asthese roles are
learnt through theprocess ofsocialization itcanbeunlearn.
Allthe above perspective inunderstanding ofgender
socialization has contributed towards amultidimensional viewpoint
that state gender asembedde datindividual, institutional and
intersectional level ofsociety.
Check your progress:
1. Explain gender socialization.munotes.in

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252.6POLITICAL SOCIALIZATION :
Political socialization isaprocess by which people
internalize political beliefs, norms, values and behaviour. According
toAberle, political socialization arepatterns ofsocial actions that
are developed inpeople through skills, motives and behaviour
which isessential toperform thecurrent roles oranticipatory roles.
Austin and Nelson define political socialization asaprocess
through which people gain required knowledge, skills and outlook
that enable them tofunction aptly inthesocial and political culture.
While forBall political socialization istoestablish and develop
necessary attitu des and beliefs about thepolitical system.Political
socialization isthus aprocess bywhich attitudes and public
opinions areformed towards thepolitical system. Itprepares the
citizens toplay greater roles inpolitical decision making and
thereby contribute forthedevelopment ofpolitical culture. Political
socialization like any other form soisalifelong process that
socializes thesocial unit towards apolitical lifeand establishes
relationship between civilsociety andthepolity.
Political socialization inculcate inpeople those values that
help increating awareness ofthepolitical world and understanding
ofthepolitical events. Politically socialized people acquire political
orientations and patterns ofbehaviour that give them opportunity to
learn basics ofpolitics that isessential forthesmooth functioning of
thedemocratic society.
Forsociologist political socialization isessentially aprocess
bywhich relationship isdeveloped between political system and
society. People getinvol ved inpolitical process through political
socialization. Itisalifelong process through which political culture
istransmitted.
Goals ofPolitical Socialization :
Totransmit ofpolitical values from onegeneration toanother.
Tomold andtransmit natio nspolitical culture.
Toinstill trust inpeople byintroducing them topolitical norms,
values andattitudes.
Tocreate sense ofresponsibility inthecitizens.
Tomaintain stability inpolitical system.munotes.in

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26Tounderstand political system and cherish thevalues,ideas
and beliefs that areessential forsmooth functioning ofpolitical
system.
2.7FORMS OFPOLITICAL SOCIALIZATION:
Political socialization canbeclassified asfollows:
Manifest orDirect political socialization:
Inmanifest political socializ ation the information, values or
norms transmitted ispolitical and people acquire theinformation
from agents ofsocialization such asfamily, peer group and
teachers about thefunctioning ofthegovernment and ideology of
various political parties forexample civics courses inschool which
provides information onfundamental rights andfundamental duties.
Indirect orLatent political Socialization:
Indirect political socialization starts with non-political
orientations and results inpolitical orientatio n.Itconsists of
fundamental features ofgeneral culture that impacts political
sphere. Ittakes place through channels such asgeneral social
conditions and behaviour resulting inpolitical action orinaction.
People acquire necessary skills and techniqu esbyparticipating in
non-political activities that may develop their political skill asan
adult participation inuniversity politics.
Particularistic Socialization:
Inparticularistic socialization political ideas ofpeople are
directed towards certainvalue, which they need tofollow and
appreciate. Entire political energies aredirected towards achieving
thatparticular political values.
Universalistic socialization:
Inuniversalistic political socialization isnotunidirectional like
particularis ticpolitical socialization. Here attempt ismade to
develop liberal views. People learn and perform various roles in
different aspect oftheir life.
Political socialization isthus acomplex process inwhich
various institutions and agencies work formall yorinformally,
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27knowledge, values andattitudes. The important agencies ofpolitical
socialization aremass media, peer group, political parties, students
unions, trade unions, women organizations andsoon.
Check your progress:
1. What ispolitical socialization?
2. Explain thegoals ofpolitical socialization.
3. Describe types ofpolitical socialization.
2.8STATE SOCIETY INTERFACE AND POLITICAL
SOCIALIZATION:
IntheState society interface government institutions arethe
key player. The member ofgovernment institutions and society
interact with each other atvarious levels forexample economic and
social reforms, policy making. Society’s demands aremet bythe
guidelines oftheState. The social dynamism ataparticular point ofmunotes.in

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28time plays significant roleindeciding whether theState and Society
relationship willbeofconflict orcooperation. Political socialization
give impetus toState and society relationship .Ithelps people to
participate inthepolitical lifeofthecountry. Forany democracy to
besuccessful itisnecessary toinitiate citizens into political lifeof
thenation andintegrate them with thewants ofthesociety.
2.9SUMMARY:
Socializatio niscontinues process. Itdoes notend asone
reaches adulthood. People asanadult adapt and mature through
the process ofanticipatory socialization and re-socialization.
Anticipatory socialization ispreparing oneself forupcoming roles in
life. This actmakes people toadapt and accept changes much
easily. Inaddition tothispeople also experience re-socialization in
their lifecourse due some fundamental changes and priorities such
asmarriage, parenthood, religious conversion, new jobetc.,
Bythe processes ofanticipatory and re-socialization we
continuously adapt tochanges insociety and also inour
chronologically aging process.
Gender socialization and political socialization are part of
larger process ofsocialization. Gender socialization isprocess
whereby men andwomen aresocialized differently. They areraised
toconform togender roles. The sociological perspective ongender
socialization reveals that interaction between social structural
forces and individual agency issignificant aspe ctofgender
socialization. Gender isdone through everyday practices. Itis
dynamic and should beconsidered within specific place, time and
space.People learn appropriate gender roles through theagents of
socialization such asfamily, mass media, school andpeer groups.
Political socialization isaprocess whereby people acquire
attitudes, values, norms and beliefs that make them responsible
citizens oftheir country. Itisessential forsmooth functioning of
democracy and participation ofpeople inthe civic life. For
sociologist political socialization isalifelong process and play key
role inmaintaining equilibrium insociety. Family, mass media,
educational and government institutions play significant role in
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292.10QUESTIONS
1.Discuss re-socialization and anticipatory socialization with
examples.
2.Examine theconcept ofgender socialization.
3.Analyse theconcept ofpolitical socialization.
4.Write anote onprimary andsecondary socialization.
2.11REFER ENCES
1.D.Crisogen, 2015, Types ofsocialization and their importance
inUnderstanding thePhenomena ofSocialization, European
Journal ofSocial Sciences Education and Research, March,
Vol.2 (4).
2.Kane Eileen, 1996, Gender, Culture, and Learning,
Washingto nDC: Academy forEducational Development.
3.Macionis, J,2012, Sociology: Aglobal introduction, 5th
edition, Harlow, England; New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
4.N.John, K.Stoebenau, S.Ritter, J.Edmeades and N.Balivin,
2017, Gender Socialization during adolescence inLow and
Middle income countries: Conceptualiztion, influences and
outcomes, Innocenti Discussion Paper, ICRW andUNICEF.
5.Riesman, B,2004, Gender asaSocial Structure: Theory
wrestling with activism, Gender and Society, August Vol.
18(4).
6.United Nations, 2014, Gender stereotypes and stereotyping
andwomen rights.
munotes.in

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30Unit -3
CRIME &DEVIANCE
Perspectives OnCrime
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Definition ofDeviance
3.2.1Characteristics ofDeviant Behavior
3.3 Definition ofCrime
3.3.1Types ofCrime
3.3.2Causes ofCrime
3.3.3Characteristics ofCriminal Behaviour
3.3.4Types ofCrimes
3.4 Theories
3.4.1Labeling Theory
3.4.2Structural Strain Theory
3.4.3Conflict Theory
3.5 Crim eRate inIndia
3.6 Measures tocontrol crime
3.7 Summary
3.8 Questions
3.9 References
3.0OBJECTIVES
After reading thisunit, youwillbeable to:
Define theconcept ofdeviance andcrime
Identify thedifference between Crime andDeviance
Toexplore measures available tocontrol thecrime ratesmunotes.in

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313.1INTRODUCTION
Intoday's scenario, every dayweeither witness orhear new
stories ofcrime. The mass media regularly reports stories of
unimaginable crimes which usually disturbs themental state not
only ofthe victims but also the society where such acts are
committed.
Very often wehear people saying that with anincrease in
modernity &changing lifestyles, crime has become apersistent
occurring inoursociety. But does that mean that thetraditional
societies were away from the criminal activities? Did everyone
totally confirm tothenorms ofthesociety? Intraditional societies
too, there were people who didnotconfirm tothenorms, thus
acting inadeviant manner. But asthere were lesse rlegal
sanctions, and mostly thevictims themselves were reluctant tofile
cases against the perpetrators, only few acts were reported &
therefore therate ofcriminal activities recorded was low.
Most ofthe time wetend touse the terms crime and
deviance synonymously which istotally wrong. Itistherefore
important tohave aclear understanding oftheterms. Inmany
conditions deviant actions does not always lead tocriminal
activities but,criminal activities arealways considered asdeviant.
3.2DEFINITION OFDEVIANCE
Deviance, insimple terms can beunderstood asthose Acts
which donotmeet theexpectations ofsociety. Every society has
prescribed rules and regulations which every member isexpected
tofollow. When aperson breaks such arule,heissaid tobeacting
asadeviant.
Therefore theterm deviance can beunderstood asany act
ofnon conformity with thesocietal rules ®ulations. However, it
does notimpose any legal sanctions. These kinds ofbehaviors
usually transgress comm onnorms ofthesociety.
Certain acts ofdeviance can beoverlooked orcan be
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32rewarded. E.gAsoldier who uses violent behavior toprotect his
country willberewarded with amedal. However, ifthe actof
deviance violates the legally prescribed norms, imposes legal
sanctions, such anactistermed asacrime.
3.2.1Characteristics ofDeviant Behavior
Following areafewcharacteristics ofadeviant behavior
Deviance issocially constructed
Members ofasociety define what isacceptable and what is
not. Acts which arenotaccepted bythesociety are termed as
deviant acts. Therefore, one can say that Deviance isasocially
constructed phenomenon.
Differs from onesociety toanother
Veryoften, what isconsidered asdeviant inone society may be
acceptable intheother. E.gEven today, intercaste marriages may
notbeaccepted inmany societies whereas theother societies may
notonly accept butmay also support such marriages.
What isdeviant may change from time totime
Itcan besaid that deviant acts areusually unstable. What was
labeled asdeviant earlier may beacceptable today andsoon.Most
oftheacts which arenotacceptable today may become acceptable
inthefuture. E.g. InIndia, widow remarriages were prohibited but
today, itisseen asapositive gesture towards women.
Deviant Behavior canbepositive ornegative.
Deviant behavior isnotalways negative. Very often deviating from
societal norms can also bring about positive results. E.g The
pioneers ofgirls education Mahatma Phule, Savitribai Phule and
others deviated from thenorms ofthesociety and stood forthe
rights ofthewomen. Their acts benefited thesociety. Therefore one
cansaythatdeviance isnotnece ssarily always negative.
3.3DEFINITION OFCRIME
Crime insimple terms means breaking thelegally sanctioned
laws. The word crime isderived from theword “Crimean” which
means charge oroffence. With thegrowing competition, use of
technology and manyother factors, the intensity ofcriminal
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33According toC.Darrow, ‘Crime isanactforbidden bythe
lawoftheland andforwhich penalty isprescribed.’
Barnes &Tecters define crime asaform ofanti-social
beha viorthat has violated public sentiment tosuch anextent asto
beforbidden bystatute.
The Waverly encyclopedia defines Crime as“An act
forbidden bylawand forperforming which theperpetrator isliable
topunishment.”
Therefore, asimple formula tounderstand crime is:
+ =
3.3.1Types ofCrime
The moment wehear about acrime, weoften start thinking
about murder, rape, robbery, cybercrime, forgery and soon.
However, wecan have abetter understanding ofacrime once we
classify them as,
Personal crime -These include anoffence oroffences against
theperson. Itcauses mental orphysical harm tothevictim. E.g
Kidnapping, rape, sexual assault, Homicide (murder).
Propert yCrime -Such crimes interfere with theright ofthe
other person towards hisproperty. E.gtheft, robbery, forgery,
embezzlement (aperson illegally takes offproperty orassets
thatisentrusted tothatperson).
Inchoate Crimes -The meaning ofinchoate itself means
“incomplete”. Itsimply means that theprocess ofthecriminal
activity had begun, butwas notcompleted. E.gAnattempt to
murder, attempt torob someone, conspiracy, solicitation
(encouraging someone tocommit acrime). Agang ofboys
planni ngtokilltheir landlord, butfailed todothesame.
Statutory Crimes -These crimes include complete violation of
specific state orfederal statute. These can involve personal
offenses oreven property offences. E.gcases such asselling
alcohol tounderag e,drink anddrive cases, etc.
White collar crimes -These are the crimes which are
committed bybusiness and government professionals. TheDEVIANCE LAW VIOLATION CRIME
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34main motive behind such crimes isthemotive tomake huge
profits. Such crimes areusually non-violent. Sociologist Edwin
Sutherland, in1939 defined white collar crime as“acrime
committed byaperson ofrespectability and high social status in
thecourse oftheir occupation.”
Cyber crime -With anincrease inthe use ofcomputer
technology, cyber crime has become aregular phenomenon.
Cyber crime isacrime that involves theuseofacomputer. We
willstudy about cyber crime indetail innext unit.
3.3.2Causes ofCrime
With theincrease inpopulation and continuous competition
inalmost allareas oflife,crime rateshave increased tremendously
intoday’s society. There areanumber ofcauses forincrease in
crime rates which include Physical factors, psychological factors
like weak mindedness, criminal insane, inferiority complex,
jealousy, trauma, etc. Environmen talfactors like failure inlove,
broken family, death ofaloved one, adultery, prostitution.
Economic factors like poverty, beggary, unemployment, job
competition, property issues, etc. Other factors include Media
influence, Exploitation, Alcoholism, Drugs, Peer group, Political
factors.
3.3.3Characteristics ofCriminal Behavior
Just aswehave mentioned certain characteristics ofdeviant
behavior, lets have alook atthe characteristics ofCriminal
behavior.
Deviant
Criminal behavior can never beaccepted asanormal
behaviour.It isalways opposite tothesocietal code ofconduct or
thenorms ofthesociety. E.g. Nosociety canexpect itsindividual to
commit crimes likemurder, rape, robbery, etc.
Hurts Moral Sentiments
Crime isadeviant actwhichnotonly breaks thenorms, but
also deeply hurts the moral sentiments ofthe community.
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35Intentional Harm
Crime ispurely intentional. Itcauses harm tothetargeted
individual orsociety. Theperpetrator ofthe crime has proper
intention tocause material, physical orpsychological harm tothe
individual. However, one must remember that crime isan‘act’ and
notmere intention orthought.
Threatens thewell being
Crime notonly threatens thewell being ofthevictim, butalso
the entire society. Itdevelops asense ofinsecurity and fear
amongst thevictim aswell astheentire society. People nolonger
feel safe tosurvive inthat particular area where crime has been
committed.
Would youfeel safe toreside inanarea with your family,
which isconstantly innews forthecases ofmurder, robbery and so
on?
Violates thelaw
The very essence ofthecriminal behaviour is,itnotonly
breaks thenorms, butviolates theprescribed laws.
CallsforPunishment
Asmentioned above, Criminal behaviour violates thelaws,
such acts become punishable. Ifsuch acts are notpunished, it
encourages such activities, which endangers humanity. The
punishment may beasminimal aspaying afine, orcan beas
severe aslifetime imprisonment oreven death penalty.
3.3.4Classification ofCrimes
There are many different types ofcrimes, even before
reading further, youmay name some ofthem inyour mind. Usually,
crime isclassified under 4categories
Personal Crimes
Personal crimes areoffences committed against theperson
which causes physical ormental harm tothevictim. These include
Homicide (killing ofhuman beings) kidnapping, rape, sexual
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36Property Crimes
Property crimes are those crimes where the perpetrator
usually tries tofalsely claim oracquire theproperty which does not
belong tohim/her. Physical harm may not benecessary. E.g
Forgery, Embezzlement, Robbery (Since robbery uses physical
force, itcanalso beconsidered asapersonal crime).
Inchoate Crimes
The term inchoate itself means ‘Incomplete’. This means that
theprocess ofthecriminal actbegan, butcould notbecompleted.
E.gConspiracy, Solicitation, etc. Gang plans torobtheir landlord,
butfailed todothesame.
Statutory Crimes
These crimes include complete violation ofaspecific state or
federal statute. These can involve personal offence oreven
property offences. Cases such asselling alcohol tounderaged,
drink anddrive cases, areexamples ofstatutory crimes.
Apart from these, wealso have,
White collar crimes, which arecommitted bybusinessmen or
Government officials, belonging tohigher positions. The main
motive behind such crimes istomake huge profits. Such crimes are
usually non-violent.
Sociologist Edwin Sutherland in1939, defined white collar
crime as,“Acrime committed byaperson ofrespectability and
high social status inthecourse oftheir occupation” E.gwage theft,
bribery .
Cybercrime, arethose crimes which arecomm itted using a
computer. With anincrease intheuse ofcomputer technology,
Cyber crime has increased tremendously and has become a
regular phenomena. We willstudy about cybercrime inthenext
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37Check Your Progress
Trytomatch thefollowing crimes with their types
1. Murder a.Inchoate crime
2. forgery b.Cyber crime
3. Online Fraud c.Property crime
4. Conspiracy d.Person alcrime
3.4THEORIES
3.4.1Labeling Theory
Developed in1960s, Labeling theory isclosely related tothe
perspective ofSymbolic Interaction, according towhich labels once
attached totheperson, strongly become apart ofisidentity and
playamajor role indeveloping his/her sense ofself. The central
idea ofthistheory was given byHoward Becker.
You may have come across people who arenotoften known
toothers bytheir names, butthey areknown bythelabels provided
tothem byother s.You may think how does theprocess oflabelling
takes place? The answer tothisquestion hasbeen provided bythe
labelling theorists.
According tothelabelling theorists, itisthesociety that
creates thenorms, and every individual, who isthepart ofthe
society isexpected tofollow these norms. When anindividual
deviates from thenorm, he/sheislabelled bythesociety.
Labeling theorists are ofthe view that nobehaviour is
intrinsically deviant. Certain conditions force the individual to
deviate from thenorms. Inorder tolabel someone, their deviated
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38Every person may have deviate dfrom thenorm atsome
point oftime inhislife. Some may getcaught, while others may
manage toescape. However, even those who getcaught, itisnot
necessary that they willgetlabeled. Itdepends onthepositioning
social standing oftheperson inthesociety. E.gAboy who openly
smokes willnotbelabeled asdeviant, butifagirlisfound smoking,
theentire society willnotaccept such abehavior and thegirlwillbe
labeled within notime. Another example can begiven ofarich
person who drinks and drives, but can get away from the
punishment due tohisposition inthesociety. However, ifapoor
person orsomeone from middleclass, who does notbelong to
higher class, willbepunished.
Once aperson isfound acting deviant and hisbehavior is
noticed, he/she gets labeled and this label becomes apart ofhis
identity. This isknown asself-fulfilling prophecy. Let’s take an
example ofachild, who islabeled asa“duffer”. He/She willstart
seeing himself/herself asaduffer and willactinthesame way.
Such children willnottake any efforts asthey have accepted the
label, unless agood teacher oraparent helps them togetaway
from thelabel bymotivating them.
Deviant identities areproduced through labeling, rather than
through deviant motivation orbehavior. Wehave stated thisbefore
that nobehavior isintrinsically deviant. E.gAlice, anorphan girl,
was foundstealing some money inorder tobuy some food forher
little sister. She gets caught and issent tojail.Alice gets labeled as
aJuvenile Delinquent. Itisvery likely that even after she returns
from thejail,thesociety isless likely toaccept her. Many parents
will ask their children tostay away from her. Thus, the label
becomes apart ofheridentity. Thus, itisthesociety and the“non -
criminals” who decide whether someone should bedescribed as
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39The basic assumptions therefore can bediagrammatically
represented asfollows:
3.4.2Structural Strain Theory
According toRobert Merton, every society creates goals
which are culturally valued and allmembers are expected to
achieve those goals bylegitimate mean s.Hefurther states that
these legitimate goals donothave limits i.epeople are unsure
whether they have achieved them. Ontheother hand, themeans to
achieve those goals arelimited oreven closed foralarge number
ofpopulation. Insuch asituation, therate ofdeviance increases.
E.gAstudent who belongs toalower class, realizes theimportance
ofeducation (the goal) butfaces problems related tofinance (the
means).
Merton hasidentified four types ofresponses outofwhich a
person may choo seacertain response ofacceptance and rejection
ofthegoals andthemeans toachieve those goals.
1. Conformity
Conformity refers toaccepting thesocietal goals aswell as
themeans bywhich thegoals can beachieved. E.g Astudent
works hard, despite ofthefinancial crisis and achieves education
and later agood job.Here, heaccepts thegoal ofeducation aswell
asthemeans toachieve thesame.Deviant behavior isnoticed
Label isAttached
Person accepts thelabel
SelfFulfilling Prophecy
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402. Innovation
Innovation involves accepting the goal but rejecting the
legitimate means toachieve the same .E.g Astudent uses
illegitimate means toachieve thegoal ofeducation bycheating.
3. Ritualism
Ritiualism means rejecting thegoals butstrictly following the
rules andregulations, thelegitimate means ofattaining those goals.
The person strictly adher estothenorms. More importance isgiven
tothemeans and thenorms and nottothegoals. E.g Even ifa
person faces financial shortage, isnotpaid well bythecompany, he
willnotaccept corrupt methods tobecome rich. Hewillreject the
goal ofbecomi ngrichandwillstrictly follow thenorms.
4. Retreatism
Retreatism refers torejecting both, thegoals aswell asthe
means toachieve those goals. Such people are only physically
present inthesociety, butnotforthesociety.
E.gAstudent, who becomes adrug addict, willnoteven want to
achieve thegoal ofeducation and willalso notaccept themeans to
achieve thegoal. Such people create their own world and donot
easily getalong with thesociety.
5. Rebellion
Insuch asituation, the person rejects socially approved
goals and also themeans ofattaining those goals, butreplaces
them with thealternative goals and alternative methods toachieve
those goals. This may result inthereshaping oftheentire society.
E.g Rebelling against the dominant cultural goals and means,
students may form orjoin political groups, with the aim of
redeveloping orreshaping thesociety.
RESPONSE GOALS MEANS
Conformity Accept Accept
Innovation Accept Reject
Ritualism Reject Accept
Retreatism Reject Reject
Rebellion Replaced Replacedmunotes.in

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413.4.3Conflict Theory
According totheconflict theorists, every society isdivided
into classes. The dominant class defines what isdeviant, applies
laws, represses conflict and protests, forcing thesubordinate class
toaccept what aredefined asdeviant bytheupper class. Majority
oftimes, activities that threaten the activities that threaten the
interest ofthedominant class, isdefined asdeviant. The loyalty of
thesubordinate class therefore decreases towards thesociety as
thesociety only supports theinterest oftheupper classes. This
situation gives rise totheactivities considered asdeviant bythe
society.
Conflict theorists argue that even though thelaws claim to
beequal forall,regardless ofthe class towhich the person
belongs, thereality isdifferent. Those who belong tohigher class or
who have contacts with the higher class, often escape the
punishment, which inturn sparks anger amongst thesubordinate
classes. Such disorganization continues and leads toincreased
roleconflict andculture conflict.
When asociety isruled byupper classes, itencourages
material success, but limits the sources available tothe lower
classes. When such asituation occurs, deviance islikely tooccur.
However, does thatmean ifthere arenodominant groups
and ifwehave classless society, would deviance and crime
disappear? One must keep inmind that deviance ispresent innon-
capitalist society aswell. So even though capitalist society
contributes todeviance, itisonly one ofthemajor variables and
cannot beconsidered astheonly cause ofit.
Check Your Progress
1.Which oftheabove Theories doyou agree with? Give reasons
foryour answer.munotes.in

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423.5CRIME RATE ININDIA
Wealways think that India isthesafestcountry intheworld.
Butisthisreally true? Intoday’s scenario, everyday, anumber of
cases ofmurder, rape, molestation, etcarebeing reported notonly
inthenewspapers butalso onthesocial networking sites. Hearing
about theviolent acts, wefear toleave ournear and dear ones
alone.
According tothereport oftheTimes ofIndia ,India saw a
“Marginal Increase” inthe crime rates forthe year 2018. The
serious crime cases ofmurder, rape, kidnapping, has seen arise.
Every second day, dowr ydeaths arereported. Even though the
crime rate inIndia has been always high, thesudden increase in
criminal activity isamajor cause ofconcern.
The report also states that themurder count has increased
from 53to59,kidnapping cases have increa sed from 1to3,rape
cases have increased tremendously.
A2017 report byGlobal Peace Index had claimed India to
bethefourth most dangerous country forwomen travelers. Gender
Vulnerability Index 2017, compiled bytheministry ofwomen and
child deve lopment found that thenorthern states ofDelhi, Bihar,
Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand areatthebottom four when itcomes
towomen safety. Many other reports also state that theposition of
India hasdropped insafety ranks.
Wealways hear about cases where women arevictims and
men aretheperpetrators ofcrime. Does that mean that women are
always innocent and men never face violence? Violence against
men isalso increasing where women commit crimes against men.
Butduetothefear oflosing social respect andmen donotreport or
speak about such cases where they arevictims.munotes.in

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43Check Your Progress
1.Apart from India, canyougive examples ofother countries which
have which have witnessed aspike incrime rates?
2.Doyou think thatjustaswomen, even men become victims of
crime? Can yougive examples ofsuch cases where women arethe
perpetrators ofcrime?
3.6MEASURES TOCONTROL CRIME
We have studied about crime and theway itaffects the
wellbeing ofthesociety. But only reading and knowing about it
never helps. Wemust also think about thesolutions that can help
ustoovercome these problems.
So,what arethemeasures that can beadopted inorder to
control theincreasing criminal activities?
There are anumber oflaws which are enacted and
amended from time totime inorder tocontrol thecriminal activities.
Sowhere does theproblem arise? Have people lost thefear of
punishment? The problem islack ofawareness regarding the
existing laws. Victims arenotaware ofthehelp available tothem.
They donotcomplain which results more suffering and motivates
theperpetrator tocommit more crimes. Most ofthetimes, people
donotreport crime because ofthefear ofloosing “honour” inthemunotes.in

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44society. E.gmany oftherape cases arenoteven reported asthe
parents ofthevictim orthevictim herself arenotonly scared ofthe
rapist, butthegreatest fear amongst them isthefear oflosing the
honor.
Due tothe existing loopholes, delay injudgements, and
corruption amongst the official’s people have lost faith inthe
system. Spreading awareness and educating people about their
rights aswell asduties canhelp thesociety. E.gmany women even
today, are notaware about their property rights, many are not
awareabout thehelp available tothem against domestic violence,
sexual harassment atworkplace, etc.
More stringent punishments bythe law, elimination of
loopholes within thejudiciary, reduced corruption, fast track courts
and removal ofsocietal prob lems can also bring down therate of
crime. Family andfriends also canplay amajor rolebynoticing any
signs ofcriminal behavior inaperson and help him/her with
counseling.
Check youprogress
1.Can youthink about anyother measures that willhelp tocontrol
criminal activities?
3.7SUMMARY
Deviance and Crime are two different concepts. Deviance
means deviating, i.eacting differently from thenorms whereas,
crime means Violating thewell established legal laws ofthe
society. Crime calls forpunishment prescribed bythejudiciary.
Crime notonly breaks thelaws, butalso gives risetothefeeling
ofinsecurity andfear amongst theresidents ofthesociety.munotes.in

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45Labeling theory, related toSymbolic interaction states that once
the deviated beha vior isnoticed bythe society, the person
receives alabel, which then becomes apart ofhis/her identity.
Moreover, theperson starts acting according tothelabel he/she
hasreceived. This isknown as“Self fulfilling Prophecy”. Forthis
itisimportant that the deviated behavior gets noticed. Ifit
remains unnoticed, theperson isnotlabeled.
According tothelabeling theorists, itisthesociety which defines
what isacceptable and what isnot. Norms arecreated bythe
society.
Structural Strain theor y,byRobert Merton, states that every
society has certain goals that areexpected tobeachieved by
theindividuals, through legitimate means.
Itfurther states that itisnotpossible that thelegitimate means
areavailable toallthemembers ofthesociety.They areclosed
foralarge number ofpopulation who may then adopt either of
the five responses of: Conformity, Innovation, Ritualism,
Retreatism orRebellion.
According totheconflict theorists, Society isdivided into two
classes, the dominant whichisthe upper class, and the
subordinates
The Dominant class defines what isdeviant, applies laws and
forces thesubordinate class toaccept thesame. They also
argue thateven though laws areclaimed tobeequal forall,they
work mostly inthefavor ofthedominant class.
The crime rate inIndia isincreasing and there isanurgent need
toframe strategies inorder tocombat thesame. Measures like
more stringent laws, spreading awareness regarding thelaws,
fast track courts, elimination ofthelooph oles, etccan play a
major roleinreducing crime rates.
3.8QUESTIONS
1.Define Deviance. Discuss the characteristics ofDeviant
behaviour.
2.Define Crime. Explain various types ofcrime and discuss the
characteristics ofCriminal Behavior.munotes.in

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463.Define Crime and Deviance. How willyou differentiate between
criminal behavior from thedeviant behavior.
4.Explain thelabeling theory ofDeviance.
5.Explain theStructural strain theory and theConflict theory of
Deviance.
6.The crime rate inIndia isincre asing. Doyou agree with the
statement? Elaborate byalso mentioning themeasures that can
beundertaken tocontrol crime rates.
3.9REFERENCES
Anthony Giddens,Sociology.5th Edition
"AnIntroduction toSociology",Vidya Bhushan &D.R Sachdeva.
1stEditio n2014.
"Introductory Sociology", Tony Bilton, Kevin Bonnett PipJones,
Tony Lawson, David Skinner, Michelle Stanworth, Andrew
Webster.
"Our Social World .Introduction to Sociology. Third
Edition.Jeanne H.Balantine, Keith A.Roberts.
https://opentestbc.ca/ introductiontosociology/chapter/chapter 7
deviance crime -and-social -control
https://www.legalmatch.com/lawlibrary/article/what are the
different types ofcrimes.htmal
financial express.com womensweb.in
munotes.in

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47Unit -4
TRAFFICKING OFWOMEN &CHILDR EN,
AND CYBER CRIME
Unit Structure
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Introduction
4.3 Definition ofHuman Trafficking
4.3.1Signs ofHuman Trafficking
4.3.2Causes ofHuman Trafficking
4.3.3Types ofHuman Trafficking
4.3.4Prevention ofHuman Trafficking
4.3.5Laws Against Human Trafficking inIndia
4.4 Cyber Crime
4.4.1Causes
4.4.2Classification
4.4.3Types
4.4.4Prevention
4.5 Summary
4.6 Questions
4.7 References
4.1OBJECTIVES
Tounderstand themeaning and causes ofHuman Trafficking
andCyber Crime
Tohelp youbout tosuggest measures inorder toprevent such
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484.2INTRODUCTION
Intheprevious unit, wehave studied about crime and its
theories. Now letslook atthetwooftheimportant types ofcrime. In
thefirst part ofthis unit, wewillstudy about Human Trafficking
whereas inthesecond part wewillstudy about Cyber Crime. Both,
Human Trafficking and Cyber crime have increased tremendously
inthepast few decades and has caused continuous threat and
exploitation ofhuman life. Now lets understand their meaning,
types indetail and also themeasures which can help ustocontrol
such crimes.
4.3MEANING AND DEFINITION
Before going ontothedefinition, lets take alook atthe
following case inorder tohave abetter understanding ofHuman
Trafficking :
“When Iwas 15,awoman who initially helped me, sent me
abroad. Onthefirst day, aman came, raped meand beat me–
Iwas terrified. Heforced metohave sexwith lots ofdifferent
men hebrought tothehouse. Itwas horrible.“
Leena, from India (name changed)
Human trafficking isaheinous crime, which notonly affects
thevictim, their families, buttheentire society. Cases ofwomen
andchildren being kidnapped andsold toother parts ofthecountry,
ortoother countries arecontinuously increasing. Ithas become a
sensitive andaterrible issue intheentire world.
United Nations has defined Human traffickin gas, “The
recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring orreceipt ofpersons
bymeans ofthethreats oruseofforce orother forms ofcoercion,
ofabduction, offraud, ofdeception, oftheabuse ofpower, orofa
position ofvulnerability, orofthe giving orreceiving ofthe
payments orbenefits toachieve theconsent ofaperson, having
control over another person, forthe purpose ofexploitation.
Exploitation shall include, ataminimum, theexploitation ofthe
prostitution ofothers, orother form sofsexual exploitation, forcedmunotes.in

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49labour ofservices, slavery orpractices similar toslavery, servitude
ortheremoval oforgans.” [Article 3,paragraph (a),oftheProtocol
toPrevent, Suppress andPunish Trafficking inpersons].
The above definition seems tobelengthy, letsbreak itinto
parts inorder tohave abetter understanding.
We can clearly note that the above definition explains
Human trafficking bydividing itinto3elements, which are,
•TheAct
This element involves therecruitm ent, transportation, transfer,
harbouring orreceipt ofpersons.
•TheMeans
The above actiscarried outbythemeans ofthreats, force,
coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse ofpower, vulnerability,
giving/receiving payments/benefits.
•ThePurpose
The sole purpose ofhuman trafficking, likeanyother crime, is
theexploitation which further includes prostitution, forced labour,
slavery, servitude orremoval oforgans.
Victims ofhuman trafficking often come from thecountries
who facepoverty, gender inequality, lack ofeducation, lack ofjobs,
instability. These victims often fallprey tothefake offers given to
them bythe traffickers. These offers include jobopportunities,
better lifestyle but inreality, they are pushed into thejobs of
prostitution, smuggling, slavery ortheir body parts areremoved and
smuggled intheinternational market.
The above elements canbesummed upas,
+ + = =
4.3.1SignsofHuman Trafficking
So,ifwecome across aperson who displays thefollowing
signs, there arehigh chances ofhim/her being avictim ofhuman
trafficking.
•Controlled Movements
•Fake IdentityTheAct TheMeansThePurposeHuman Traffickingmunotes.in

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50•Tendency tohide their address
•Noaccess toearnings
•Work excessively
•NoSocial Interaction
•Think they arebonded ordebt
•Constant fear isdisplayed ontheir face.
However, even after thevictim isrescued, they take time to
come back totheir normal lives asthey face alotoftrauma andstill
display signs offear oreven aggression.
Check Your Progress
1. Definition ofHuman Trafficking isdivided into which ofthe
three elements andwhat does each element include?
4.3.2Causes ofHuman Trafficking
We often think about the causes that lead toHum an
trafficking. Despite ofthe growing population, growing security,
How dopeople become victims oftrafficking? Lets look atsome of
thecauses which have played amajor role inthespread ofHuman
Trafficking
Poverty
With thegrowing population and scarcity ofresources, many
countries are facing acute poverty. People staying inmiserable
conditions, getfooled with offers ofjobs, better lifestyle inanother
country. Many parents also send their children with their relatives,
who sadly, have contacts with traffickers, also create risks.
War
Wars often lead displacement ofpeople. Itincreases the
number ofwidows, orphans, street children, who areattheriskof
becoming victims astheir families arenolonger alive toprotect
them. Such women and children areeither forced into prostitution,munotes.in

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51begging orbonded labour andareeven transported toother places
forcefully.
Status ofWomen
Inmany societies, women aredevalued, looked down upon,
often seen asanobject oflust and sex. They arekidnapped or
lured with jobopportunities and pushed intoforced prostitution. E.g
Traffickers use thetechnique offooling girls bygiving them fake
offers towork infilms and latter kidnap and sellthem inthemarkets
ofanother countr ies orstates where they are exploited as
prostitutes.
Ignorance
Ignorance onthepart ofvictims and their families byblindly
trusting theunknowns, believing infake offers, lack ofknowledge
about thepolicies ofrecruitment inother state sorcountries, have
contributed totremendous increase inthe cases ofhuman
trafficking.
Check Your Progress
1.What signs willyou look forwhile describing someone asa
victim ofHuman Trafficking?
4.3.3Types ofTrafficking
Human traffick ingisacrime that canoccur inanypart ofthe
world. Today, Human Trafficking has taken many forms some of
which are:
SexTrafficking
Official figures state that more than 3million prostitutes are
seen inIndia. Women and children arelured, kidnapped, forced
intoprostitution and aresoled inthemarkets togain higher profits.
Sex trafficking therefore, forces thevictims tounwillingly work as
prostitutes, inbrothels, pole dancing, strip clubs, pornographic
movies, sextourism, etc.munotes.in

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52Labour Exploitation
This refers toasituation where thevictims areexploited to
work forvery little ornoremuneration, under the threat of
punishment. Avictim iscoerced byuse ofviolence, blackmailing,
retention ofidentity proofs, threats tofamily members, etc. Fore.g
Young child renareoften kidnapped and soldinother parts ofthe
countries and are forced tobeg ontraffic signals. The money
earned through begging istaken away bytheir “master s”.
Forced Criminality
This isasituati onwhere the victim isforced toundertake
criminal activities like supplying drugs, bag snatching, chain
snatching, pickpocketing, kidnapping, murder, etc. Young children
can easily fallprey tosuch activities. Most ofthetimes, there isa
high possibil ityofthevictims being “brainwashed” and pushed into
terrorism. Many terrorist camps often recruit trafficked victims and
usethem tofulfil their terrorist motives.
Organ Harvesting
Organ harvesting involves removing anorgan ofthebody,
especi allykidneys, liver and selling them illegally inthemarket to
earn huge profis. Aperson may befooled tohave aparticular
disease forwhich heisrequired tobeadmitted inthehospital. The
organs areremoved without even theknowledge orconsent ofthe
victim, intheguise of“treatment”.
Thus, trafficking occurs attheindividual oratthegroup level,
where notonly anumber ofwomen and children, butalso men are
illegally transported. They arefooled and lured, once they arrive in
thecountry, their passport andother documents areforcefully taken
away bythetraffickers.
4.3.4Prevention ofHuman Trafficking
What aretheways that canhelp ustoprotect ourselves and
ourfamilies, friends from such aheinous crime?
Lack ofawareness and access toprotection, justice ,make
people easily fallprey tosuch crimes. Inorder toprevent such
crimes, certain steps canbetaken.
Promote education amongst thesociety
Strengthen individual skills andknowledge among thelocal smunotes.in

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53Framing policies which help tocombat such crimes
Fostering positive feelings among neighbours who can unite
themselves andhelp each other inneed
Implementing policies that provide proper using, proper wages,
healthcare themembers ofthesociety sothatthey become self
sufficient anddonotfallprey tosuch crimes.
Youth programs should beundertaken sothat they can
themselves respond tothesigns ofexploitation and reach outto
seek help orprovide help tothevictims.
4.3.5Laws Against Human Trafficking inIndia
Human trafficking isprohibited bytheConstitution ofIndia under
theArticle 23(1).
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,1956 (ITPA) works against
thecommercial sexual exploitation.
Criminal law (Amendment) Act, 2013 has come into force
wherein Section 370 ofIndian Penal Code hasbeen substituted
with Section 370and370Awhich provides measures tocounter
trafficking
Protection ofchildren from Sexual Offences (POSCO) Act, 2012
protects children from Sexual Abuse andexploitation.
Other provisions like Prohibition ofChild Marriage Act 2006,
Bonded Labour System (Abolition) Act, 1976, Child Labour (
Prohibition and Regulation) Act,1986, Transplantation ofHuman
Organs Act1994, Sections 372 and 373 dealing with selling and
buying ofgirls for the purpose ofprostitution are also
undertaken tofight Human Trafficking.
Therefore, inorder tocombat fight such crimes, itis
necessary tobeaware and alert about thepossibilities ofsuch
occurring.
Check Your Progress
1.What precautions will you take foryourself orforyour
family/friends against human trafficking?munotes.in

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542.What willyoudoifyoucome across someone who isavictim of
Human Trafficking? Willyouignore theincident ortrytoseek help
forthesame?
4.4CYBER CRIME
With the advent ofGlobalisation and advancement in
technology, the entire world has not only seen anincrease in
communication, butalso ithaswitnessed increasing crime rats. On
one hand, Information technology makes iteasy tocommunicate
andontheother hand, itmakes usfallprey tocriminal activities.
Before adecade ago, ifsomeone from your family oryour
close friend shifted tosome other country, itwould notbepossible
tohave face toface interaction. But,thanks toCyber system, we
can have face toface interaction regularly through video chats, no
matter inwhichever part oftheworld theperson is.
But, just aseverything has some negative sides, the
increasing useofcomputer technology, brought with itself anentire
range ofcriminal activities outwhich many people areunaware .
Inorder tounderstand cyber crime, letusdivide theconcept
into twoparts where theterm Cyber means relating tocomputers
and crime means theviolati onofthelaw. Therefore, cybercrime, in
simple terms means, the use ofcomputers orinformation
technology tocommit awide range ofcrimes from online identity
theft, hacking files, gambling tocybersex, stalking oreven
terrorism. Cyber crime isthus anattack launched through a
computer, targeting oneormany other computers.
According totheInternational Journal ofEmerging Trends
and Technology inComputer Sciences (ITETICS), Cyber crime
may bedefined as,“Unlawful acts wherein thecomputer iseither amunotes.in

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55tool, oratarget, orboth.” Criminals who perform these illegal
activities arecyber criminals orhackers.
4.4.1Causes ofCybercrime
Cybercriminals, always look foreasy ways tomake money.
Having extensive knowledge ofcomputers and information
technology, butusing itincorrectly toearn money, gives rise to
cybercrime. Earlier, cyber criminals targeted rich organizations like
banks and financial firms wherein rich amount ofmoney flows
everyday. However, today even acommon men becom esavictim
within notime.
Have you come across people who lost their entire bank
balance innotime, just because ofclicking wrong option or
submitting personal details?
The following reasons have made iteasier forcybercriminals
tofindoutnewways ofcrime
Easy toaccess
Urge toearn quick money
difficulty inidentification ofcriminals
lack ofreporting inthepart ofvictims
Check Your Progress
1. What isCyber Crime? How isitdifferent from other crimes?
4.4.2Classi fication ofCybercrime
Cyber crime has taken many forms and iscontinuously
expanding today. Broadly, we can classify them into four
categories:
1.Crime against individuals
Harassing someone byuse ofE-mails, Malicious codes,
Posting, Phishin g,Credit card fraud, Pornography, sexchat, Cyber
defamation which targets theindividual.munotes.in

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562.Crime against Property
These include Intellectual Property Crimes, Salami Attacks,
Computer Vandalism, etc. These are prevalent inthe financial
institut ions.
3.Crime against Organisation
Hacking theofficial siteoftheorganisation, comes under this
category. The Hacker “cracks” into thewebsite that ismaintained
confidentially bythe organisation like military orgovernment
organisations. Everysystem intheworld faces theinsecurity of
hacking.
4.Crime against Society
Polluting theminds ofthe youth, Financial crimes, Sale of
illegal articles, NetExtortion, Web Jacking, Data Diddling aresome
ofthecrimes falling inthiscategor y.Forged currency notes, forged
mark sheets canbemade using high quality printers and scanners.
Web Jacking hackers gain access and control over thewebsite of
another andcaneven change thecontent ofthewebsite.
4.4.3Types ofCybercrime
While classifying cybercrime, we came across many new
concepts. Now lets briefly examine some ofthe types of
cybercrime.
1.Tax-refund fraud
The thieves use stolen ,personally identifiable information to
filevictims tax returns and receive their refunds. For e.g An
employee who has filed herincome taxreturns, butshe gets a
notice saying “More than one taxreturn foryou was filed”. After
shespoke totheconcerned department, sherealised that shewas
thevictim ofIdentity theft taxrefund scam.
2.Identity Theft
Identity theft occurs when acybercriminal successfully steals
personal identity information ofavictim. Identity thefts areusually
committed togain financial rewards. The thieves uses theidentity
ofthevictim forusing credit cads, debit cards, purchasing goods
andservices, obtaining employment, etc.munotes.in

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573.Cyber Stalking
Unlike thestalkers who follow you onroads orother places,
cyber stalkers use internet tostalk. This isakind ofonline
harassment wherein thevictim messages, e-mails and other online
activities arekept under watch. However, when online stalking does
not bring about desired results, itisaccompanied with offline
stalking which makes thematter worse.
4.Malicious Software
These aresoftware programmes which disrupt thenetwork
systems. These softwares provide sensitive information ordata and
disrupt theother softwares present inthesystem.
5.Phishing
Phishing isanattempt toobtain sensitive information such as
user names, passwords, credit/debit card details bywinning the
trust ofthevictim aslegal, trustworthy sites.. Phishing isdone
through sending e-mails, phone calls, SMS, within anongoing
sessions.
Have you come across messages which claim areward of
1000000 million dollars? The main aim ofphishing istoget
personal information. Any messages which trytoget personal
details canbeanactofPhishing.
6.Cyber Defamation
With the growing connection ofpeople through Social
Netwo rking sites, Cyber Defamation has become one ofthemost
common crimes. Aperson sitting inonecountry, caneasily damage
thereputation ofsomeone inanother corner oftheworld within a
few minutes. Thus, Defaming someone bytheuse ofinternet is
calle dCyber Defamation. E.gAcompetitor ofawell known country
may hack the website ofthe target company and provide
misleading information.
Cyber defamation uses mediums like websites, E-mails,
discussion forums andmost commonly Social Network ingsites.
7.Hacking
Hacking isone ofthe most common type ofcybercrime
wherein the person “cracks” the access insomeone else’smunotes.in

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58computer system. Hacking uses personal information ofothers in
order togain control over their systems, fortheir own personal
reasons inorder tocause damage toothers.
8.Piracy
Piracy istheillegal copying and distributing programs, movies,
music without permission. The movie and music industries arethe
main targets and have fought against themisuse ofintellectual
property. E.g Many atimes, anupcoming movie goes viral on
internet even before itsrelease.
9.Salami Attacks
Rather than illegal withdrawing huge amounts ofmoney, these
attackers deduct small amounts over aperiod oftime, and atone
point, itwillresult inwithdrawing ofahuge amount which can
empty your entire account.
E.gToday, weadd alotofcash inonline wallets. Incase ifasmall
amount gets deducted from ourwallet, wemay often ignore such
acts. But, suddenly, entirewallet turns outtobeempty. Such acts
areSalami Attacks.
10.Cyber Squatting
Cyber Squatting refers toillegal domain name forregistration
oruse. Ituses thedomain name inorder tomake huge profits by
selling their products ormaking people visit their websites, which
otherwise wouldn't bepossible. Copyright holders may neglect to
reregister their domain names which helps thecybersquatters to
easily steal their names.
Thus, Cybercrime, being global innature, itcan be
comm itted from any place, against any person, inany part ofthe
world. However, measures have been taken inorder tobring down
therates ofCyber crimes, butsadly, cybercriminals, explore many
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59Check Your Progress
1.Ifyoucome across amessage saying “government isdistributing
free laptops togetthesame, forward themessage to5whatsapp
groups then click onthe link below”, would you forward that
message andclick onthelink?
4.4.4Prevention ofCyber crime
Many precautions should betaken bythecomputer users in
order tosafeguard themselves from cyber crime.
Computer users must useafirewall protection inorder toprotect
their computer from Hacking. Some computers have inbuilt
firewalls whereas forothers, onehastopurchase thesoftware.
Antivirus softwares should bepurchased inorder tohave virus
protection. E.gMcAfee, Norton Anti virus, AVG.
Online shopping should only bedone from trusted sites which
aresecured. Credit/Debit card details should never beprovided
onsites which donot have Version seal orthose without
trustees.
Using strong passwords and continuously updating them,
changing login details also help toprotect ouraccounts from
becoming victims.
Checking the security ofSocialNetworking Sites isalso
extremely important tocontrol what information weshare online.
Avoid accepting requests from unknown profiles asmost of
them arefake profiles. Settings ofFacebook, Twitter, Instagram
should always besettoprivate.
Mobile devices should bekept secured using PIN codes, finger
locks orfacelocks. One should never take ariskofstoring bank
passwords, pinnumbers oreven own address intheir mobiles.
Weoften getattracted tofree wifihotspot networks. Butoften
these are insecure. Financial transactions should never be
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60One should think twice before clicking onalinkorafilewhich
has unknown origin. Never reply toE-mails that ask them to
verify information orconfirm their users IDpasswo rds.
One must have arational approach and never respond tosuch
messages, texts orphone calls which claim attractive rewards.
Also, personal information should never be provided on
insecure sites orthrough SMS.
E.gAlady received acallfrom afraud who claimed himself asa
bank executive. Heconvinced her that ifshe doesn't verify her
details heraccount willbeblocked and she would loose allher
money. Outofthefear, thelady immediately provided allherdetails
andwithin seconds heraccount balance was zero!
Whenever wereceive such calls, wemust make sure that all
ourdetails should only beverified inthebranch ofthebank andnot
onphone calls orbye-mails.
World wide police, intelligence departments, governments
have begun toreact against cyber crimes. Cyber cells have been
started across thecountry which hashelped insolving many cases
ofCyber crime.
There are various laws which deal with Cyber crimes in
India. One such ActistheInformation Technology Amendment Act,
2008, which includes many Sections thatdeal with Cybercrime.
One should note that though computer technology has
eased ourlives inmany ways, Ignorance and negligence onthe
part ofusers canlead tosevere loss and help thecriminals togain
hugeprofits bytheir malpractices.
Check Your Progress
1. Asauser, what precautions have you taken inyour smart
phones /laptops toprotect yourself from becoming the victim of
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612.Can wesaythat Cyber Crime canalso beused asamedium to
increase Human Trafficking? Give reasons foryour answers?
4.5SUMMARY
Human Trafficking andCyber Crime cause ahuge threat tothe
well being ofthesociety. Cyber crime can also beused asa
medium tosupport human trafficking.
Human Traffic king isaheinous crime affecting notonly the
victims, but the entire society. Human Trafficking involves
illegal transportation ofhuman beings and their exploitation
through various means.
Human Trafficking isnotonly accompanied with mental and
physic altorture, but also sexual abuse and illegal organ
transplantation. Ithas taken many forms ofSex Trafficking,
bonded labor, Forced criminality.
Human Trafficking isprohibited bytheConstitution ofIndia
under theArticle 23(1).Criminal Law (Amendment) Act, 2013,
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act,1956, Protection of
children from sexual offences (POSCO) Act,2012, Prohibition
ofChild Marriage Act 2006, Bonded Labour Systems
(Abolition) Act1976, Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation)
Act 1986, Transplantation ofHuman Organs Act 1994,
Sections 372 and 373 dealing with selling and buying ofgirls
forthe purpose ofprostitution are few legal laws against
Human Trafficking.
Cyber Crime isacrime where acomputer iseither atool ora
target orboth.It means use ofcomputer and information
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62Cyber crime cantarget notonly anindividual and hisproperty,
buttheentire organisation and society canbecome thevictims
ofthecriminal activity.
Anumber ofmeasures can beadopted onthepart ofusers
which include using Antivirus applications, firewall protection,
strong passwords, etc.
The Information Technology Amendment Act 2008 includes
many Sections thatdeal with Cyber Crime.
Inorder tocombat anyCrime ,whether itisHuman Trafficking,
Cyber crime orany other forms ofcrime, awareness onthe
part ofthecitizens, strict laws and immediate action bythelaw
machinery isextremely important.
4.6QUESTIONS
1.Define Human Trafficking. Explain itsdifferen ttypes.
2.What arethecauses ofHuman Trafficking? What arethelaws
thatdeal with Human Trafficking?
3.Define Cyber Crime andexplain itsvarious types.
4.What isCyber Crime? Explain itscauses and measures that
canbetaken tofight Cyber crime.
4.7REFE RENCES
1.www.crossdomainsolutions.com
2.www.britannica.com
3.https://www.antislavery.org/slavery -today/human -trafficking.
4.https://www.unodc.org/whatis -human -trafficking.html
5.https://www.dhs -gov/blue -campaign/what -human -traffcking.
6.https://sf -hrc.org/what -human -trafficking
7.https://www.stop the traffic.org/about -human -traffick.org/about -
human -trafficking/types ofexploitation/
8.https://www.financialexpress.com/india -news/crime -inindia -rise-
in-2018
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63Unit -5
LEISURE TOURISM &ADVENTURE
TOURISM
Unit Structur e
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Meaning andDefinition
5.3 Growth ofMass Tourism
5.4 Adventure Tourism
5.4.1Origin &History
5.4.2Types ofAdventure Tourism
5.4.3Characteristics ofAdventure Tourism
5.4.4Motivation forAdventure Travel
5.4.5Scope ofAdventure Tourism
5.5 Conclusion
5.6 Summary
5.7 Questions
5.8 Reference
5.0OBJECTIVES:
Tounderstand thenature oftheleisure andtourism industry
Todevelop anunderstanding ofthecontribution that leisure and
tourism makes tosociety andtheeconomy
Todevelop anawareness and understanding ofsustainable
development andenvironmental issues relating totourism
5.1INTRODUCTION
Travel and tourism has been one ofthe most dynamic,
economic and social growth activities over the past few
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64industry especially inthetwentieth century. Today ithas become
thelargest industry intheworld. Alltourism related activities such
as,hospitality, travel and tours, lodging and boarding businesses
are acentral pillar oftheservice economy. These provide jobs
opportunities and livelihoods tothousands ofpeople and also
contribute tonational income.
5.2MEANING AND DEFINITION
Some scholars such asRoche (1992) argue that tourism isa
vehicle and asymbol ofwesternization, ofprogress and
modernization. Tourism ispromoted bycountries because itnot
only generates revenue forthenation buthas anenvironmen tally
friendly image. Other industries such asmining, logging, industry
orexploitative use ofwildlife are considered todamage the
environment. However tourism provides aviable development
option tomost nations. Hence itisreferred toasa“smoke less
industry”,
Because ofitsgrowth potential tourism hasbeen recognized
asagrowth industry. One way oflooking attourism isthat itisa
leisure activity. Boorstin (1961) draws adistinction between the
arduous conditions undertaken by‘travellers’ (aterm originating
from theFrench word travail meaning work, trouble, torment), such
aspilgrims, and the ‘tourist’, forwhom travel has become an
organized and packaged affair. The idea oftravel forpleasure
within the context ofhuman activity isarelatively recent
phenomenon. This isreflected inthefactthattheword ‘tourism’ has
become part ofourcommon language.
5.3GROWTH OFMASS TOURISM
This growing demand fortourism isareflection ofchanging
economic, social and political conditions. This would also reflect
thevarious factors responsible forthegrowth oftourism worldwide.
Industrial revolution and subsequent urbanization brought about
economic and social changes insociety. People especially in
societies ofWestern Europe and North America experienced
alienation and isolation asthey were denied direct contact with
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65Revolution was atechnological advance intransport. One form of
mass leisure ismass tourism. The emergence ofmass tourism also
needs tobeunderstood vis-à-visthegrowth ofleisure time andalso
structure offree time. Inthe developed countries, there is
widespread perception that tourism isanessential feature of
modern life. ‘Not togoaway’ islikenotpossessing acarora‘nice’
house. Itisamarker ofstatus inmodern societies and isalso
thought tobenecessary tohealth’ (Urry, 1990).
Incontemporary society, therole ofinformation technology
and itsinfluence ontourism cannot bedenied. Thedevelopment in
photography and cinema offered images offoreign lands toa
widening audience atthebeginning ofthetwentieth century. Thus
thechanging social and economic conditions insociety that are
associated with the Industrial Revolution led toanincreasing
participation intourism bymembers ofdifferent social classes. The
combination ofchanging social conditions insociety and the
encouragement oftourism development bynational governments,
has ledtoarapid increase inthenumber ofpeople travelling
across theworld.
Several mass tourism and niche tourism markets have
developed depending onthetourist demand. We willstudy the
growth and development ofecotourism, adventure tourism and
rural and urban tourism. Wewillassess thefactors driving different
forms oftourism and also study thebenefits ofeach tothetourist
aswell asthehost community
5.4ADVENTURE TOURISM
Adventure tourism isatype ofniche tourism. Itinvolves
exploration ortravel toremote areas where one expects the
unexpected. There isarapid growth intheadventure tourism
market astourists seek something thrilling. Examples ofadventure
tourism would typically cover, mountaineering expeditions, sea
surfing, paragliding, sky diving, ballooning, river rafting, rock
climbing, etc. Adventure travel isatype oftourism. Itinvolves
exploration ortravel with perceived and possible actual risk. Italso
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665.4.1Origin andHistory
Humans have been engaged inadventurous travels for
hundreds ofyears viaexploration byMarco Polo, Columbus and
others who had primarily scientific, geographic, orcolonial motives.
But commercial adventure travel asweknow ofittoday, where
professional guides are hired toprovide technical support and
equipment, aswell asculture and nature interpretation isa
relatively new phenomenon.
Inthemid-1800s, adventurers began topush thelimits of
mountain climbing and river rafting. Inthe mid-1950s, many
ascents and descents onthemountains attracted global attention
and also inspired others toattempt their own expeditions. Maurice
Herzog’s ascent ofAnnapurna (inNepal) in1950, SirEdmund
Hillary and Tenzig Norgay’s ascent ofMount Everest gotimmense
media coverage allover theworld.
Today, adventure tourism isavibrant, dynamic and fast-
changing sector with new variants routinely added intothepossible
experiences.
Adventure tourism can bedefined as‘travel and leisure
activities that are brought into inthehope that they willproduce a
rewarding adventure experience, provoke arange ofemotions such
asexcitement (Swarbrooke, etal.2003). According totheU.S.
based Adventure Travel Trade Association, adventure travel may
beanytourist activity, which include anytwoofthefollowing three
components: a)aphysical activity, b)acultural exchange or
interaction, c)engagement with nature.
Check Your Progress
1.Define Adventure Tourism.munotes.in

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672.Give reasons forthegrowth ofmass Tourism.
5.4.2Types ofAdventure Tourism
Adventure tourism canbecategorized intotwogroups: Hard
Adventure and Soft Adventure.
Hard Adventure refers toactivities with high levels ofrisk,
and also that require intense commitment and advanced skills and
training. Hard tourism includes activities such as,mountaineering,
rock climbing, trekking, rafting, caving, etc. Hard adventure
activities are highly risked innature. Therefore, professional
guidance, advance level skills are required toperform these
activities. For example, mountaineering requires regular training
with equipment andtools.
Soft Adventure refers toactivities with perceived risk but
low levels ofrisk, requiring minimal commitment and beginning
skills. Most ofthese activities areledbyexperienced guides. Soft
tourism includes activities such as,backpacking, camping, hiking,
kayaking, nature trails, etc. Most activities arelowrisk innature
and therefore soft adventure isapopular category inadventure
tourism.
5.4.3Charac teristics ofAdventure Tourism
Adventure travel ischaracterized byathreefold combination
ofactivity, nature and culture. Some unique features ofadventure
tourism areasfollows:
Physical activity involving physical exertion and psychomotor
skills
Contact with nature, ie.Activities that entail contact with the
natural world ingeneral, orwith specific wildlife
Contact with varied cultures, people, places, faiths, lifestyles.munotes.in

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68Journeys through vehicle, animal powered oroperated by
humans.
Uncertain Outcomes
Element ofdanger andrisk
Anticipated rewards
Novelty
Stimulation andexcitement
Exploration anddiscovery
Contrasting emotions
5.4.4Motivation foradventure travel
Tourist motivation reflects people’s inner needs that make
them choose theholiday experience that gives them satisfaction.
Motivations can range from risk taking, self-discovery, self-
actualization, self-awareness, desire for escape, affiliation,
achievement, etc.
Desire for learning :Adventure travellers are motivated to
participate inadventure travel asthey have aneed forlearning.
Such travellers want tolearn about people, places, cultures and
want togain insight and knowledge. Adventure tourists arenotjust
content with just visiting anew culture, but are keen tohave
‘cultural understanding’ sothatthey canexpand their perspectives.
Psychological Stimulation: Adventure tourism isvery popular
among young age tourists. Adventure tourists aredriven toachieve
anexalted orexcited mental state. This may give thetourist an
adrenalin rush characterized asrush and flow, resulting from
stepping outofthecomfort zone. They may achieve this state
through experiencing ‘culture shock’ (afeeling ofanxiety and
disorientation that occurs when anindividual encounter san
unfamiliar culture). Visitors may participate inactivities inwhich
there issome degree ofrisk (real orperceived) and physical
danger, especially inextreme sports.
Technological advancement: With explosion ininformation
technology, there isaneasy access toinexpensive consumer
technology with respect toGlobal Positioning Systems, flash
packing, social networking, andphotography have triggered interest
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69Rise inindividualism :Individualism istheideathat freedom of
thought and action foreach person isthemost important quality of
asociety, rather than shared effort and responsibility. Traditional
societies arecharacterized by‘collectivism’ inwhich group interests
areimportant. Modern societi esarecharacterized by‘individualism’
inwhich individual interests isofparamount importance.
Individualism has trigged interest inindependent adventure travel.
Research has shown that young people and soloists usually
participate inadventure activities.
5.4.5Scope forAdventure Tourism inIndia
India has rich and vast geographical and natural locations,
which ishighly suitable foradventure activities. There areanumber
ofadventure destinations and landscape locations, which are
enough toprovide anopportunity toengage inadventure activities
inIndia. Mountaineering, Trekking, Paragliding areactivities that
canbeexperienced here.The locations range from landscapes, sea
connected areas, mountains and rivers, wildlife sanctuaries and
National Parks which attract tourists and visitors foranadventure
tour inIndia.
Tourists interested inForest safari, Camel safari and Jeep
safari can beexperienced within the National Parks and
Wildlife sanctuaries which areabundant inIndia.
Adven ture Scuba Diving isanactivity which canbeconducted
incoastal regions ofIndia which arerichinmarine wealth.
White water rafting which enchants thetourists and provides
risk and danger. India isreplete with opportunities in
Rishikesh, Alaknanda river, Brahmaputra riverand many more
locations.
5.5CONCLUSION
Astravelers seek new and different experiences, adventure
tourism continues togrow inpopularity. Adventure tourism holds
potential toprovide animpetus tothetourism industry. Itcan
provide additional product tothetourist who isseeking excitement,
adventure along with risk. The government aswell asthetourism
stakeholders, such as,tour operators, NGOs, local communities,
entrepreneurs, and hospitality providers should work together to
promote and encourage this segment oftourism which has
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705.6SUMMARY
Adventure tourism isatype ofniche tourism. Itinvolves
exploration ortravel toremote areas where one expects the
unexpected.
Adventure tourism can bedefined as‘travel and leisure
activities that arebrought into inthehope that they willproduce a
rewarding adventure experience, provoke arange ofemotions such
asexcitement.
Motivations foradventure tourism canrange from thedesire
tolearn, psychological stimulation, technological advancement, and
arise inindividualism. India has rich and vast geographical and
natural locations, which ishighly suitable foradventure activities
5.7QUESTIONS
1.Explain theorigin andhistory ofadventure travel.
2.State thetypes ofadventure travels.
3.Delineate theimportant characteristics ofadventure tourism.
4.Explain themotivation forparticipating inadventure activities.
5.Discuss thescope foradventure tourism inIndia.
5.7REFERENCE
https://tourismnotes.com/adventure -tourism/
https://greenglobaltravel.com/what -is-ecotourism -
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71Unit -6A
ECOTOURISM
Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ecotourism -Origin andHistory
6.3 Principles ofEcotourism
6.4 Potential forEcotourism
6.5 Future ofEcotourism
6.6 Conclusion
6.7 Summary
6.8 Questions
6.9 Reference
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Ecotourism necessarily means social and environmentally
responsible travel. This implies visiting natural areas and benefitting
local communities. Planning for tourism is usually considered a
mechanical activity. There is hard ly any consideration for the
natural resource as well as the community. Part of this problem
can be solved if elements of sustainability are incorporated into the
tourism project. Since the introduction of the concept of sustainable
development, attempts have been made to link to virtually all
aspects of development. Tourism is no exception, hence the term
“sustainable tourism”.
Ecotourism came into prominence in the late 1980’s. It was
used as a strategy for putting together two purposes: conservation
along with development in areas that were ecologically.
Governments felt that ecotourism could generate economic benefits
at local and national levels. Thus it could lead to more awareness
about the natural resources, on which tourism heavily depends. It
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72encourage private sector conservation efforts. In this way it would
offer considerable potential for integrating conservation with
development.
6.2 ECOTOURISM –ORIGIN AND HISTORY
The term sus tainable development has been prominent in all
discussions relating to policy making since the mid -1980s. The
notion of sustainability has been extended to all industries including
tourism. The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and
Developmen t( U N C E D )o rs o -called Earth Summit was held in Rio
de Janeiro. This provided a push for a variety of efforts to “green”
industries. This could be achieved through voluntary compliance,
governmental regulations, and international treaty. The Earth
Summ it’s Agenda 21, which was approved by 182 countries, laid
out a broad path and challenge for businesses to adopt the
principles and practices of sustainable development.
To celebrate the 10thanniversary of the Earth Summit, the
United Nations declared 2 002 as the “International Year of
Ecotourism”. Before 1970’s, little attention was given by
companies, governments or NGO’s to environmental and social
impacts of travel and tourism industry. Between the late 1970’s
and the mid 1980’s, a new field known as “ecotourism” gradually
began taking shape. Its definition however has been
vague: ecotourism is frequently referred to as “responsible”,
“sustainable”, “low impact” or “green” tourism and the industry
lumps it together with “nature”, “adventure” and “w ildlife” tourism.
Ecotourism is an offshoot of the wave of environmental
awareness. The main idea behind this concept is to make use of
tourism as a tool for the protection of natural ecosystem by giving
them a socio -economic value in their original stat e.Traditionally,
environment and development have always worked on opposite
sides. Ecotourism is a promising tool because it has the potential
to promote linkage between environmental conservation and
development interests.
Ecotourism means making as little environmental impact as
possible and helping to sustain the indigenous population.
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73a place. It is a key to sustainable ecological development. It is a
purposeful travel to natu ral areas to understand the cultural and
natural history of environment, taking care not to alter the integrity
and originality of the ecosystem. Ecotourism also means producing
economic opportunities that make conservation of natural
resources beneficial to local people.
In short, ecotourism can be conceptualized as any tourism
programme that is:
Nature -based
Ecologically sustainable
Where education and interpretation is a major component and
Where local people are benefitted
Until recently there has been some confusion surrounding
the etymology or origin of the term “ecotourism”. Ceballos -
Lascurain of Mexico was the first to coin the term ‘ecotourism” in
the early 1980’s. Lascurain defines it as:
“Traveling to relatively undisturbed or uncontamin ated
natural areas with the specific objective of studying, admiring and
enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and animals, as well as any
existing cultural manifestations (both past and present) found in
these areas”. Ceballos -Lascurain illustrates th at his initial
reference to the phrase occurred in 1983, while he was in the
process of developing PRONATURA, an NGO in Mexico.
Hetzer (1965), has used ecotourism to explain the
relationships between tourists, and the environments and cultures
in which t hey interact. Hetzer identified four fundamental pillars
that need to be followed for a more responsible form of
tourism. These included: a)minimum environmental impact;
b)minimum impact on –and maximum respect for host cultures; c)
maximum benefits t o the host country’s grassroots; and d)
maximum ‘recreational’ satisfaction to participating tourists.
6.3 PRINCIPLES OF ECOTOURISM
Ross K. Dowling has pointed the five key principles that are
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741.Nature Based : Ecotourism is based on the natural resources,
the flora and fauna of a given area as well as its cultural features.
The raw material for ecotourism project is its natural setting like a
wildlife sanctuary. The conservation of natural resource is essen tial
to the planning, development and management of ecotourism.
2.Ecologically sustainable : The principle of sustainability
operates at three level; Ecological, Economic and Social
sustainability. Because ecotourism is a subset of sustainable
development, the same principles also extend to ecotourism. In
practice it means that tourism needs to be developed keeping in
mind the carrying capacity of the place without harming the natural
areas.
3.Environmentally Educative : One of the key features that
disting uish ecotourism from other forms of tourism is its emphasis
on Education. Environmental education and interpretation are
essential in creating a meaningful ecotourism experience. These
help in spreading knowledge, creating awareness and appreciation
for the environment.
Ecotourism education is paramount because it will influence
tourist behavior, impact community and have long term
consequences for the natural areas. Here education can be used
as a management tool for natural areas. On the other hand,
interpretation centres help tourist understand the biological, social
and cultural importance of tourism site.
4.Locally beneficial : Usually in tourism activities, local
communities are treated either as being dispensable or are treated
as a resource that can be exploited. The local community is always
last when it comes to receiving benefits from tourism. Local people
can become involved in tourism operations and also provide
knowledge, services, facilities and products to the tourists. In this
way, ec otourism can generate income for the locals and also help
in resource conservation.
5.Tourist satisfaction: If the ecotourism industry is to be viable,
it will depend on the satisfaction of tourist in the long run. The
ecotourism experience should be as much as or greater than
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75to the conservation and protection of the ecotourism site that is
visited.
Authentic ecotourism combines a number of the
abovementioned components that are interrel ated. However, the
first three characteristics are considered to be absolutely essential
for a tourism site or product to be considered ‘ecotourism’. The last
two principles are viewed as being desirable not only for ecotourism
but for all forms of touri sm.
Check Your Progress
1.What isthemain idea behind Ecotourism?
2.Can you, explain any2principles ofEcotourism?
6.4 POTENTIAL FOR ECOTOURISM
As compared to the North (developed countries), many
biodiversity rich countries of the South (underdeveloped countries)
receive large number of tourists. Thirteen of them (Argentina,
Brazil, Cyprus, the Dominican Republic, India, Indonesia, Macao,
Malaysia, Mexico, Morocco, South Africa, Thailand and Vietnam)
receive over 2 million fore ign visitors per year. More than one –half
of the poorest 15 countries fall within the biodiversity hotspots, and
in all of these, tourism is already significant or is forecast to
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76importan t in biodiversity hotspot countries particularly in South -East
Asia and South America. This will require careful planning to avoid
negative impacts. India is one of the major biodiversity “hotspots”
and this indicates potential tourist traffic in the coun try.
All tourism activities can be positioned on a continuum that
ranges from the more ‘hard’ pursuits on one extreme to those of a
‘soft’ variety on the other extreme. The hard ecotourism ideal type
involves -specialized trips -undertaken over a relat ively long
period of time -by small groups of dedicated environmentalists -
who like to stay in the wilderness or other relatively undisturbed
environment. At the other end of the spectrum, soft ecotourism
involves -larger groups -of less committed tour ists -whose
encounter with nature is temporary -usually it is one incidental
component of a multi -purpose trip. These tourists tend to look for
comfort in travel. They tend to concentrate in more modified areas,
often on the edge of a protected area or within its interpretive
centre, where a high level of services is available. In reality, most
trips fall somewhere in between these two extremes of the
continuum.
6.5 THE FUTURE OF ECOTOURISM
Ecotourism as an industry has its advantages and concern s.
It is a double edged sword which would benefit the host community
and also create irreparable damage to the tourist site. Ecotourism
provides an opportunity to develop tourism in ways that minimize its
negative impact. If ethically implemented, it can be used as means
of preventing environmental degradation, while sharing economic
benefits with the local communities.
In the coming future, tourism will be shaped by tourists’
preference for alternative forms of tourism, especially nature -based
tourism and ecotourism. While there are instances of successful
ecotourism ventures all over the world, there are a fair number of
failures too. The format of ‘ecotourism’ in Belize defies any of the
stated principles of ecotourism to such an extent that it is
considered as ‘eco -terrorism’. The World Tourism Organization
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77the tourism industry. Some believe this is good news and others
are horrified at the potential environmental damage that ecotour ists
and operators may cause to already fragile environments.
6.6CONCLUSION
Inthecoming decades, thefuture oftourism generally willbe
shaped byalternative forms oftourism, especially nature -based
tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism provides theopportunity for
many countries and regions within them topromote anidentity that
isunique tothat place. Itcan create new and exciting tourism
experiences, promote excellence intourism, present and protected
natural areas, bring benefit tolocal communities and encourage
commercially successful and environmentally sound tourism
operations. InIndia theprospects look bright forthedevelopment of
sustainable tourism with ahigh-yield. India can offer national and
international touristsa niche marke tfocused onthecountry's unique
natural, cultural andhistoric features.
6.7SUMMARY
Ecotourism necessarily means social and environmentally
responsible travel. There are five key elements ofecotourism
which areasfollows: Itisnature based, ecologically sustainable,
environmentally educative, locally benefits, and provide tourist
satisfaction.
Ecotourism asanindustry hasitsadvantages and concerns.
Itisadouble edged sword which would benefit thehost community
andalso create irreparabl edamage tothetourist site.
InIndia theprospects look bright forthedevelopment of
sustainable tourism with ahigh-yield. India can offer national and
international touristsa niche market focused onthecountry's unique
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786.8QUESTIONS
1.Examine the origin and development of the concept of
ecotourism.
2.Discuss the salient features of Ecotourism.
3.State the principles of ecotourism.
4.Discuss the future of ecotourism for a country like India.
6.9 REFERENCES
Fennel, D(2003): Ecotourism -An Introduction, (2nded),
Routledge, London
https://tourismnotes.com/adventure -tourism/
https://greenglobaltravel.com/what -is-ecotourism -10-simple -steps -
to-more -sustainable -travel/

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79Unit -6B
RURAL AND URBAN TOURISM
Unit Structure
6.1 Rural Tourism
6.1.1 Introduction
6.1.2 Definition and charact eristics
6.1.3 Typology of rural tourism
6.1.4 Forces impacting rural tourism
6.1.5 Benefits of rural tourism
6.1.6 Questions
6.2 Urban Tourism
6.2.1 Introduction
6.2.2 Definition and concept
6.2.3 Elements of urban tourism
6.2.4 Factors impacting Urban Tourism
6.2.5 Benefits of urban tourism
6.3 Conclusion
6.4 Summary
6.5 Questions
6.6 Reference
6.1RURAL TOURISM
6.1.1 Introduction
The tourism and hospitality industry isan important
contributor toanation’s economy. Itisaninteg ralpart ofthe
economic development strategy fordeveloping nations oftheworld
which arerich isbiodiversity hotspots. Given theoptimism related
tothetourism industry ingeneral, there isagreat scope forrural
tourism. Anumber ofstudies have pointed outthat tourism has
huge potential foreconomic development, especially forrural
communities. Rural tourism promises toimprove thesocial and
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80Rural tourism covers arange ofactivities, natural and
manmade attractions, amenities and facilities, transportation,
marketing and information systems. Rural tourism isvisit torural
areas and enjoying farm -based activities. Italso covers special
interest nature activities such asecotourism, adventure tourism,
health tourism, ethnic tourism, etc.
6.1.2 Definition andcharacteristics ofrural tourism
Rural tourism can bedefined asthe ‘village experience’
which covers awide range ofactivities and experiences that take
place inanon-urban oragricultural setting. Such tourism typically
entails visits towide -open space, with low levels oftourism
development, very little tourism infrastructure atthe same time
provides opportunities forvisitors todirectly experience village life
inanatural environment. The most essential features ofrural
tourism areasfollows:
Located inrural areas.
Functionally rural –itissmall -scale, uses natural resources,
open space, contact with natural heritage, and has traditional
practices.
Rural inscale –Small scale uses local materials and basic
infrastructure.
Traditional incharacter –grows organically over aperiod of
time. Connected tograss roots, built bythepeople, ofthe
people andforthelong term good ofthepeople andthearea.
6.1.3Typology ofruraltourism
Mass tourism and alternative tourism aretwo sides ofthe
same coin. Mass tourism ischaracterized bylarge numbers
seeking holiday experience inpopular tourist destinations.
Alternative tourism ontheother hand, issometimes referred toas
‘special interest tourism’ or‘responsible tourism’. Itischaracterized
assmall scale, using local resources and seeking meaningful
contact with local community’s way ofliving and thelocal natural
environment. There are three major types oftourism activities:
Heritage tourism, Rural tourism, Agritourism. Allcategories tend to
overlap with eachother andarenotmutually exclusive.
Heritage tourism :Sometimes heritage tourism isincluded under
rural tourism. This format oftourism celebrates thesocial, naturalmunotes.in

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81and cultural heritage ofatourist site. This may include among
other, nature -based tourism, ecotourism, agritourism, aswell as
partnership -based approaches. The primary purpose ofheritage
tourism isexperiencing places and engaging inactivities which
represent thepast. Visit tomuseums, cultural centres, orcaves
entails heritage tourism.
Nature based tourism :Nature based tourism, sometimes called
recreation -based tourism refers totheprocess ofvisiting natural
areas forthe purpose ofenjoying the scenic beauty, including
wildlife. Nature -based tourism may beeither active orpassive.
Active nature -based tourism isbecoming very popular inrecent
times, inwhich participants take part inoutdoor recreation or
engage inadven ture travel. While passive form ofnature -based
tourism involves tourists who strictly observe and experience
nature.
Agritourism: gritourism refers totheactofvisiting aworking farm
orany agricultural, horticultural oragribusiness operation. The
purpose ofthevisit isenjoyment, education, active involvement in
thefarm oroperation. Itinvolves taking part inarange offarm -
based activities, such asfarmer’s markets, overnight farm orranch
stays, visiting agriculture related festivals, museum sandother such
attractions. ‘Grass routes’ anNGO, engages inproviding village
experience toitsmembers.
6.1.4Forces impacting Rural Tourism
Scholars have identified anumber offorces that drive rural tourism,
which areasfollows:
Alienation andIsolation ofurban life:ndustrialization and
urbanization have brought about social and economic changes in
thesociety. This has impacted traditional community structures
and hasremoved people from their natural environment. Gradually
the city has come tobeassociated with stress, alienation and
isolation. This changing perceptions oflandscapes explains why
people travel torural areas.
Influence ofmedia :Mass tourist resorts are associated with
overcrowding, over familiarity and congestion. People always want
something new and unexplored. Media brings attention tothemunotes.in

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82alternative tourist attractions, where people flock toexperience
novelty.
Increasing environmental awareness: Young travellers who are
environmentally conscientious have understood the relationship
between humans and environment. Green issues have raised the
attractiveness ofrural experience asecologically sustainable
tourism. Better educated travellers mostly would liketotake up
special interest tourism.
Advancem ent inTransport and Communication: Transport,
communications and theremoval oftrade barriers, political and
economic barriers totravel have made rural areas more accessible.
Perception ofHealth :Rural areas areperceived ashealthier,
offering fresh,unpolluted air,cleaner water, fresh, off-the-farm food
and outdoor recreation. Moreover, rural tourism offers apleasant
break from the fast-paced, competitive lifeofurban areas and
rejuvenates andrecharges individuals.
Opportunity forinteractio n:Rural tourism isREAL (Rewarding,
Enriches the spirit, provides Adventure, and Learning). Rural
tourism isconsidered tobeauthentic, genuine innature asitisnot
artificially created orstaged.
6.1.5Benefits ofRural Tourism
Rural tourism may beaniche tourism market, nevertheless, it
promises some ofthefollowing benefits torural people and rural
development.
Economic benefits: Rural tourism creates job opportunities,
especially fortheyouth. Job creation occurs inhotel and catering
trades, transport, retailing, information and heritage interpretation.
Rural tourism also creates new business opportunities. Itfacilitates
expansion ofcomplementary businesses such asservice stations,
hospitality services, recreational activities, andartsandcrafts.
Social benefits :Many rural communities especially those inthe
forest regions have suffered serious economic problems because
ofcommercialized felling oftrees. Rural tourism canassist forestry
bydiversifying income sources forforest communities ifthespecial
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83and developed. Tourism also brings about enhanced amenities
and infrastructure tothearea. This shapes acommunity’s identity
and shared image. This haspositive implications forcommunity
pride, particularly rural museums asanimportant repository oftheir
cultural heritage.
Cultural benefits :Rural tourism helps inthepreservation ofrural
culture and heritage. Inrural tourism the‘sense ofplace’isa
fundamental element inboth thetourists’ and host community’s
feelings ofwhat makes thearea attractive tovisit and livein.This
sense ofplace ismaintained through rural museums which play an
important role inpreserving heritage. The linkbetween arts and
tourism can beatwo-way process. Many rural communities use
their arts and crafts, traditional dance and music toattract tourists
totheir areas.
Environmental benefits: Rural landscape isapart oftheheritage.
Visitors can impact landscapes positively through their contribution
interms ofpolitical and economic benefits. Using political pressure
from tourism authorities, the funds that are generated through
tourism activities can beused towards conservation ofthetourist
site.
6.1.6Questions :
Rural Tourism
1.State thedefinition andcharacteristics ofrural tourism.
2.What arethedifferent forms ofrural tourism?
3.Discuss thefactors/forces responsible forrural tourism.
4.State thebenefits ofrural tourism
6.2URBAN TOURISM
14.2.1 Introduction
Urban tourism isanimportant factor ofpresent tourism.
Many developed countries have been using urban tourism
development polities aseffective measures todrive and rejuvenate
their economies. Cities offer modern amenities aswell ashistorical
features. Therefore they are becoming much sought after
destinations intheregional and international tourist circuits. Urban
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846.2.2 Definition andconcept ofUrban Tourism:
The concep tofurban tourism isvery broad and itconsists of
allkinds ofentertainment activities that areheld incities. Tourism
activities that areconducted intheurban areas ofthecity isknown
asurban tourism .This covers different types ofactivities, such as
visit tohistorical places orbuilding, tourist attractions, landscapes,
artgalleries, attending special events which showcase theculture
and heritage ofthe city. Urban tourism generates images of
heritage and identity that areconsumed bynotonlyresidents but
also byvisitors. For many cities urban tourism istheir basic
industry, which generates income and also supports upcoming
regeneration projects.
6.2.3Elements ofurban tourism
Urban tourism comprises ofbasic three elements, namely,
Primary elements, Secondary elements and Additional elements.
The primary elements include :a)Cultural facilities such
asmuseums and artgalleries, (Jehangir ArtGallery) theatres and
cinema halls, concert halls and convention centres. B)Sports
facilities and c)Amusement facilities such asnight clubs, Bars,
Casinos and festivals (Kala Ghoda Festival), d)Physical
landscapes such ashistorical street pattern, interesting buildings,
ancient monuments and statues, parks and green areas, waterfront
such asharbor, canal orriver, e)Socio -cultural features such as
Liveliness ofaplace, language, local customes, costumes,
friendliness andsecurity ofalocation.
The secondary elements include: Accommodation,
catering facilities, shopping andmark ets.
While the Additional elements are accessibility tothe
areas, Transport facilities and parking, Tourist information inthe
form ofguides andmaps, etc.
6.2.4 Factors impacting Urban Tourism
Over theperiod ofyears, theevolution ofurban tourismhas
been influenced byseveral factors such as:
Economic Factors :Urban tourism triggers significant financial
gains astourists spend alotfrom thecultural experience point of
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85Rural tourism may beaseasonal business, buturban tourism isnot
affected byseasonality, since urban movements takes place all
throughout the year irrespective ofthe season. For example.
Mumbai witnesses tourism allyear round asitisused asan
important transit point for travellers visiting other places in
Maharashtra.
Social Factors :Asleisure gets redefined, one sees agrowth of
leisure time and also thestructure offree time. Aslesser time is
spent indaily chores theholidays orleisure time hasgrown longer.
People’s mobility has increased due toprogress oftransportation
services regarding higher travelling speed and lower travelling
costs.
Cultural Factors: Urban tourism influences theincrease inacity’s
attractiveness. Effort ismade topromote cultural patrimony,
hospitality, and heritage. This contributes tocreate animpressive
image andsubsequently attract tourist flows.
Technological Factors :The developments inthe field of
information technology and transportation facilitate travel and
booking and accommodation toatourist site. The internet isalso
replete with travel blogs which direct tourists’ preference.
Demographic Factors: Also decrease inretirement age, early
economic opportunities, latemarriages, families with double income
and nokids (DINKS) –allfactors increase number oftourist
footfalls toaplace. Anumber oftours and travel agencies who
cater tospecific individual demand also contribute tomotivations to
travel. Thus there isanemergence ofseveral segments of
travellers, from solo travellers, retired travellers, young travellers,
honeymoon travellers, senior citizen travellers, religious travellers,
women travellers, etc.
Juridical Factors: Acity’s attractiveness isdue toitsrich history
aswell asitscurrent status. Municipalities trytodiversify urban
tourism tocater toalltypes oftourists. This isdone by
rehabilitating historical centres, shopping centres, upkeeping
national parks within the city, preserving and protecting urban
landsca pes, rivers and mountains within citylimits. Mumbai cityis
replete with several heritage sites, such as,themuseum, various
artgalleries, National park, thetribal colony within Aarey, severalmunotes.in

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86koliwadas, and itsrich waterfronts. Slum tourism isalso one form
oftourism which isbecoming desirable especially inthedeveloping
countries. Municipalities create special infrastructure which
encourages short -term stays with theurban areas.
6.2.5 Benefits ofUrban Tourism
Urban tourism may generate benefits for the urban
communities aswell astheoverall society. This can beachieved
through proper planning, development and management. Tourism,
byitsnecessity canprovide animpetus forthedevelopment ofnew
cultural and commercial facilities which can beused bylocal
residents and thetourists. Tourism practices permit thecollection
ofnecessary user fees from tourists which can beused for
preservation and conservation ofnatural, archaeological and
historical monuments, artsandcultural traditions.
Stanciulescu (2009) observes that urban tourism can bring a
plethora ofbenefits totheurban community, which areasfollows:
Creating new work places
New perspectives forlocal tourism firms
New investment possibilities
Increase ofincomes and improvement ofstandard ofliving for
locals
Generating incomes from local taxes which can beused for
restoration ofheritage structures
Improvement ofinfrastructure whose direct beneficiaries would
betourists andmost importantly, theresidents ofthearea
Improvement ofenvironment quality
6.3CONCLUSION
India has anenormous potential forgrowth inthetourism
sector. Developed countries attract urban tourists; while under
developing regions oftheworld attract tourists seeking village or
rural expe riences. Inthisregard, India hasdouble advantage, asit
hasrichagrarian areas aswell asupcoming and established urban
centres. Policy makers can provide novelty ofexperience in
popularizing both aspects oftourism sectors. The government
should recognize thispotential and devise policies with thehelp of
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876.4SUMMARY
The tourism and hospitality industry isan important
contributor toanation’s economy.
Heritage tourism, nature -based tourism and agrito urism are
types ofrural tourism.
Anumber offorces impact tourism such asinfluence of
mass media, environmental awareness, development oftransport
andcommunication, opportunities forinteractions.
Benefits ofrural tourism include social, economic ,cultural
andenvironmental benefits.
Tourism activities that areconducted intheurban areas of
thecityisknown asurban tourism.
Anumber offactors influence urban tourism such as,
economic, social, cultural, environmental, demographic, juridic al
factors.
Urban tourism may generate benefits for the urban
communities aswell astheoverall society.
6.5QUESTIONS
Urban Tourism
1.Explain thedefinition andconcept ofurban tourism.
2.What arethethree elements ofurban tourism?
3.Discuss thefactorsdriving urban tourism.
4.What arethebenefits ofurban tourism?
6.6REFERENCES
Fennel, D(2003): Ecotourism -An Introduction, (2nded),
Routledge, London
https://tourismnotes.com/adventure -tourism/
https://greenglobaltravel.com/what -is-ecotourism -10-simple -steps -
to-more -sustainable -travel/
munotes.in

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88Unit -7
ENVIRONMENT :URBAN ECOLOGY
&IMPORTANCE OFENVIRONMENTAL
CONCIOUSNESS
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1Environment
7.1.2Ecology
7.1.3Interconnectedness between different Eco System
7.2 Ecological Consciousness
7.2.1 Need todevelop Ecological Consciousness :
7.3 Urban Ecology
7.3.1Urban Ecology InIndia
7.4 Case Study ofMumbai City
7.4.1Background
7.4.2Environmental Probl em
7.4.3Mangrooves
7.4.4The Green Cover
7.4.5The Land
7.5 Summary
7.6 Questions
7.7 References
7.0OBJECTIVES
Tounderstand theconcept ofEnvironment andEcology.
Tounderstand theinterconnectedness betwee ndifferent Eco-
system s.
Tounderstand theimportance ofEcological Consciousness .munotes.in

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897.1.INTRODUCTION
The environment isnotstatic. Itisfunctioning, dynamic &
continuously charging. Any change inone component orprocess
sets upcorresponding cyclicchanges inallother components over
time &change. The presence ofman intheenvironment adds
further dynamism toit.Organism and their environment are
dynamic andinterdependent.
7.1.1Environment
The term environment means, asurrounding. Enviro nment
isthetotality ofallexternalities that affect thehuman life. The term
has been derived from theword “environs ”which means “around”.
Inbroader perspective itconsists ofhuman orsocial, political,
economical andphysical environment.
Italsorefers tothecomplex ofphysical, chemical and biotic
factors that actupon anorganism and ultimately determines its
form andsurvival.
7.1.2Ecology
The science ofecology has agradual development through
history. The writings ofHypocrites, Arist otleand other philosophers
ofGreek period contain materials ofecology. Ecology today isthat
branch ofscience, which ismost relevant toeveryday lifeofevery
man, woman andchild.
According toWebster ’sdictionary ecology isdefined as
“thestabili tyorpatterns ofrelations between organism and
their environment” .
Definition ofecology:
1.The study oftherelationships between living organisms and their
environment.
2.Study ofthe relationships between living things and their
environment.
7.1.3Interconnectedness between different Eco-System:
Ecology isthestudy ofrelationship between living organism
and their environment. Ecology isthe science that attempts to
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901.The basic level ofecological organization starts with the
‘individual’ (asingle plant, insect orbird).
2.The next level oforganization isthe‘population’ .Populations
arecollections ofindividuals ofthesame species within anarea
orregion.
3.The next more complex level oforganiz ation isthe
‘community’ .Communities are made up of different
populations ofinteracting plants, animals and micro -organism
within some defined geographical area.
4.The next level oforganization is‘ecosystem’ .Anecosystem
consists ofdifferent communitie soforganisms associated within
aphysically defined space -the advent ofthe new ethical
development, one that deals with human relations totheland
anditsnecessity.
This relationship isdefined astheland ethic. This concept
holds tothe central component referred toasthe ‘ecological
consciousnesses .
The ecological consciousness isnotthevague idea, butone
that isnot recognized inmodern society. Itreflects individual
responsibility forthehealth andpreservation oftheland upon which
wealllive, and allofitscomponents. Ifthehealth oftheland is
upheld, itscapacity ofself-renewal and regeneration ismaintained
aswell. Till date, conservation has been our sole effort to
understand andpreserve thiscapacity. Ifthemainstream embra ces
hisideals ofaland ethic and anecological consciousness, the
beauty, stability andintegrity ofourworld willbepreserved.
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91Let’s check ourprogress
1.Define Environment and Ecology. Explain theinterrelationship
between ecology andeco-system
7.2WHAT ISECOLOGICAL CONSCIOUSNESS?
Anecological consciousness isaway ofbeing that respects
thenatural world --plants, trees, animals, and insects. Individuals
with this form ofintelligence feel directly related toand engaged
with thenaturalworld.
1.Astate ofbeing inwhich alldaily behaviours areviewed through
alens ofecological literacy and responsibility, forming an
ecological beneficial lifestyle. (Forum ofEcological Education
andAction 2008)
2.Aconsciousness that isbased onvalueattitudes oriented
towards thepreservation, restoration and rational useofnatural
world. (Biriukova 2005:34)
3.Adeep awareness ofonce connections tononhuman nature.
4.Personal identification with nonhuman nature.
5.Intrinsic value ofnonhuman nature.
6.Adeep concern about the destruction ofour natural
environment.
7.Interest inself realization orientated towards meaningful
engagements with nonhuman others.
8.Understanding that ourglobal crises aretheconsequences ofa
dominant industrial, consumer mode rnity and individual
responses such aspowerlessness tonegative consequences
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92Ecological consciousness canbeviewed asafundamental way
ofaltering the‘nature ’and re-engaging theworld that offers the
possibility ofshifting perspectives on ‘self’ and ‘nature ’.
Individuals need todiscover their own ways ofrelating tothe
world toimprove and sustain environmentally responsible
behavior.
7.2.1Need todevelop Ecological Consciousness:
The ecologica lcrises confronting humanity has been
increasingly well documented inrecent times, with particular
attention being paid tothenature and impact ofAnthropogenic
climate change anditsconsequences atglobal levels.
Today society isoverrun with the desireforspeed and
convenience, and driven bycompetition. Asking thebusy world to
stop, step backward and work theconcern forsuch things assoil,
rocks oroak trees intoitscontracts and agreements isafoolish
notion.
Ecological alienation and restr icted consciousness is
proposed assubstantially causative ofdecisions and behavior that
leads toenvironmental degradation. An ecologically effective,
respectful and relational consciousness or ‘ecological
consciousness’ istobeencouraged inorder tonotonly improve
environmental behaviors butmeet thechallenges posed byaglobal
environmental crisis.
The nature oftheglobal ecological crisis highlights theneed
forhumanity tobecome more conscious ortotransform once
consequences tobring forth moreofwhat one hasignored ortaken
forgranted andtostrengthen therelationship tononhuman.
Tobecome ecologically conscious istowork onown lives to
encourage deeper, fuller meaning and broader identification with
earth and itslife,tobecome alert,attentive and attuned and make
the ordinary, extraordinary. Inother words, wemust seek to
understand ourworld beyond thesurface appearance ofthings and
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93Let’s check ourprogress
1.What ismeant byecological consciousness? Discuss theneed
forecological consciousness
7.3URBAN ECOLOGY :
Human ecology isconcerned with the inter relationships
between people and their environmen t.Itstudies how thephysical
environment shapes people’s lives (for ex: how rivers prevent
expansion ofhouses) and how people influence their surrounding
environment (forex:how airconditioning hasincreased pollution in
cities). Urban ecology studies such relationships asthey appear in
urban areas.
Urban ecology isthestudy oftheurban environment and the
complex interactions and relationships which occur within it.Over
halfofthehuman population lives incities, with many humans living
inmegacities ofepic scale, making urban ecology atopic ofintense
interest. Many organizations which conduct urban ecology research
dosowith thegoal ofbuilding healthier, safer, and more beautiful
cities, although urban ecologists canalso take onaless judgmental
role, simply collecting and presenting data and allowing other
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94
http://www.thenatureofcities.com/TNOC/wp -
content/uploads/2013/05/1 -s2.0-S1877343512000966 -gr1-
400x420.jpg
Early urban ecologists such asRobert Park and Ernest
Burgess concentrated oncitylifeindetail.
Bythe middle ofthe 20thcentury, the urban population
started moving out ofthe city tolive insuburbs. Thus urban
develo pment took place inseveral places likeafinancial district, a
manufacturing zone, awaterfront area, anentertainment area, a
green zone, etc.This iscalled theMultiple -nuclei model. Forex:the
rise ofshopping malls. Inthebeginning allshopping mallsexisted
only inthecentral business district. People travelled tothecenter
from thesuburbs tomake major purchases from theshops out
there. However, asthecityexpanded and suburbs became more
populated, people started shopping atshops closer totheir homes.
This ledthespread ofshopping malls.
The 21stcentury hasalso seen theformation of‘edge cities’
created byurban decentralization. Ascities decentralize they lose
their center toform amulti -centred model. As cities grow,
residential areas, industrial parks and shopping districts move awaymunotes.in

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95from one another. Few people wish toliveclose toindustrial areas
sothecitybecomes amixture ofdifferent districts.
Urban ecologists are also interested inurbanizing and
transitioning areas .When cities spread out, they bring avariety of
changes with them. Urban ecology can chart and track these
changes, looking athow theland changes and what theimpact or
urbanization is.Urbanization canbeboth good and bad, depending
ontheperspectiv eone views itfrom; acity might, forexample,
pave over ariver, damaging anaquatic ecosystem ,butitwould
also build structures which create housing forhumans and habitat
forahost ofother organisms, from thebacteria onthekitchen sink
totheferal cats intheallies.
The urban ecosystem isinfluenced byahuge number of
factors, and itismarkedly different from the surrounding
environment. Cities tend tobewarmer than thesurround ingarea,
and studies ofurbanization have shown how temperatures climb as
cities sprawl, and cities may also develop their own weather
patterns and other ecological phenomena. The study ofurban
ecology involves learning asmuch aspossible about this
ecosystem, themany elements inbalance within it,and what lifeis
likefortheorganisms which dwell init.
Urban ecologists candoeverything from monitoring apatch
ofacity forseveral years towatch theecosystem evolve and
change tomaking policy recommendations which aredesigned to
improve conditions inacity. Major development may be
accompanied byconsultations with anurban ecologist who
provides suggestions which willmake thedevelopment ahealthy
addition totheecosystem, rather than anegative one, and these
suggestions may also include techniques for making the
development more efficient and more pleasant toliveorwork in.(
https://www.wisegeek.com/what -is-urban -ecology.htm )munotes.in

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96Let’s check ourprogress:
1.Define urban ecology. Discuss the factors affecting urban
ecology
7.3.1Urban Ecology inIndia
InIndia, thepresent BJP Govt. has introduce dtheidea of
100 “smart cities”. By2050, about 70percent ofthepopulation will
beliving incities allover theworld and India willneed about 500
new cities toaccommodate theincreasing population. Therefore
thegovernment has realised theneed forcities that can cope with
thechallenges ofurban living andalso bemagnets forinvestment.
7.4CASE STUDY OFMUMBAI CITY:
Mumbai ’sdevelopment plan isrevised every twenty years.
Amongst many issues that active citizens and environmental
groups have flagged isthat ofecology and environment.
Sustainable Ecology &Environment hastobethecentral aspect of
citydevelopment plans andprepared with peoples’ participation.
7.4.1Background
City building efforts have ledtounprecedented abuse and
destruction ofnatural assets and ecosys tems. Also their
relationship with built environment has been severed inmost
instances. Asamatter offact, development plans and programs
have dealt with natural conditions with hostility. Their exclusion
from citymaps ortheir inadequate documentation, asinthecase of
Mumbai, isanexample ofsuch apathy and indifference. Instead,
ourchallenge istheir integration, towards building asustainable
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97Today, cities have theopportunities forhigher construction
andfinancial gains atthecost ofsocial andenvironmental interests.
This build -more syndrome and thedevelopment anarchy across
cities hasledtothedecimation ofnatural environmental conditions.
InMumbai ’scase, thenatural assets coverin ganarea ofover 180
square kilometers hasbeen damaged and inmany instances totally
destroyed byindiscriminate construction. These eco-sensitive
areas have been considered asdumping grounds forwaste
disposal andillegal land filling.
Due torapid expansion plans and programs incities, ithas
become necessary todefine boundaries and areas ofvarious
natural aspects.
InMumbai, based on‘Open Mumbai ’plans, wehave jointly
proposed tothe authoritie stodesignate the buffer areas as
reserved public open spaces forwalking and cycling without any
form ofconstruction and forregeneration ofnatural ecosystems.
Further, wehave proposed todevelop acontiguous network of
these buffer areas connected withother open spaces ofthecity
parks, gardens, playground etc., and various public places: market
areas, community buildings, transportation hubs, etc. We believe
that free public access tospaces inthis network will facilitate
effective vigilance bycommunity groups against abuse and misuse
ofthenatural assets. Such collective engagement inopen spaces
willfacilitate social networking and thedemocratization ofpublic
spaces andvital ecological resources.
InMumbai ’scase, due toPILs, theCourts haveordered that
mangrove areas bereserved asprotected forests. Similar orders
have prohibited land filling inwetlands. State Government of
Maharashtra has been pursuing anidea ofbuilding low-cost
housing onsaltpan lands and other wetlands forshort -term political
gains. InMumbai forexample, wewitness large -scale illegal land
filling, dumping ofgarbage and rubble generated from building
repairs and construction sites onto areas ofmangroves, wetlands,
rivers and creeks. Even thecitygovernment, hasover theyears,
used wetlands andmangrove areas assolid waste dumping sites.munotes.in

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98Formalization ofthenatural and eco-sensitive areas ofcities
isofutmost importance. Integration ofthenatural areas with other
social infrastructure and human developm ent demands are
complex, when basic human rights related tohousing, amenities,
access tohealthcare and education are pressing demands. For
example, toreduce erosion ofthe coastline including beaches,
governments are dumping concrete tetra pods and building sea
walls. Similarly, enormous concrete walls arebeing built onboth
sides ofrivers and other watercourses tocontain their spread.
These bigcontract turnover projects permanently severe thewater
courses from thenatural ecosystems.
Integration ofthe natural assets with other urban
development goals isnoteasy; particularly when thecityisbeing
systematically fragmented into disparate and conflicting parts, best
reflected inthe physical form ofcities. Land and resources,
including natural areas aredivided and barricaded and considered
individually and separately for various construction and
development works. How then can theintegration ofnatural and
built environments happen fortheachievement ofasustainable
urban ecology under thepresent nature ofcitydevelopment?
This integration isindeed one ofourbiggest challenges in
ourthrust towards urbanization and citybuilding. Forthispurpose
people’s movements forenvironmental cause would necessarily
have tojoinforces with other democratic rights movements forthe
achievement ofintegrated and inclusive cities world over. This has
tobeasimultaneous effort inallcities oftheworld.
7.4.2Environmental Problems ofMumbai
Modern experts and politicians would like toblame the
British fordestroying thenatural environment ofMumbai; however,
sanction ofhazardous policies and projects liketheBandra -Worli
sea-linkinthepast twoorthree decades have done more harm to
Mumbai than the150 years ofBritish regime. The problem isthat
the authorities have failed toforesee the consequences of
tampering with theenvironment. They have consistently ignored the
warnings and pleas ofenvironmentalists. Infrastructure projects are
sanctioned inthe name ofdevelopment ofthe city, hardl y
emphasizing on the environmental impact assessment. Themunotes.in

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99government inturn isissuing environmental clearances toprojects
like the construction of20-storeyed skyscrapers onthe fragile
Cumballa hill.
7.4.3THE MANGROVES
Mangroves areanintegral part ofthelandscape ofMumbai.
Mumbai issurrounded byover 5000 acres ofmangrove swamps
spread over various areas like Mahim, Madh, Thane creek,
Versova, Gorai andGhodbunder. Ofthese, Mumbai haslostalmost
40% toreclamation ofland forconstruction and developmental
projects. About 300 acres was sanctioned tobuild theEsselworld
amusement park intheGorai creek atBoriv aliand agolfcourse at
Andheri. However, the biggest symbol ofthe destruction of
mangroves isthe Bandra -Kurla complex which was builton
reclaimed land almost strangulating themouth oftheMithi River.
Creation ofinfrastructure isan important and totally
justifiable end inacity like Mumbai which isaiming togain an
international look.
However, unplanned urban development without respecting
thecourse ofnature willalways backfire intheform ofadisaster
like26/7. Inacoastal city, wetlands, wastelands, saltpan lands and
mangroves function asbuffer zones against tidal movement land. In
case ofmangroves, land has been reclaimed inthename ofslum
rehabilitation and garbage dumps. Sadly enough, on these
pretexts, valuable mangroves aredestroyed tomake way forhigh
rises.
7.4.4THE GREEN COVER
Inrecent years, several extensive infrastructure projects
have been sanctio ned forthe'good' ofthecity. These include
various road -widening projects, construction ofnew flyovers and
link roads. Mumbai Urban Infrastructure Project (MUIP) and
Mumbai Urban Transport Project (MUTP) insist that these projects
can becarried outonlywith thefelling oftrees inthose particular
areas.
Mumbai isthe only metropolitan city inthe world which
boasts ofanational park inthemiddle ofoneofitsbusiest suburbs.
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100illega lconstruction activity, encroachment byslums and quarrying.
Several companies carry outquarrying inthepark which have led
totheerosion oftheland and have also affected thehabitats ofthe
animals. Quarrying also reduces themineral content insoilwhich
affects itswater retention capacity and alters thecourse ofnatural
water sources. The park isbeing hemmed inbyallsides by
unchecked development. With theentry ofman intonature, nature
has entered man's backyard inthe form ofleopards attacking
people andhomes.
7.4.5THE LAND
According tointernational standards, theminimum amount of
open space required perthousand persons is4acres; forMumbai,
itismerely 0.03 acres per1000 people. Anideal way ofcorrecting
this anomaly istoprudently use the land available tous.
Construction has tobeaccompanied with aproportionate increase
inthesupply ofcivic amenities like water, electricity, drainage,
roads and parking facilities. There isalready tremendous pressure
onthese amenities and further construction without augmenting
their supply would lead tocongestion and pollution. Asmentioned
earlier, often land isdereserved ortaken over forconstruction for
thepurpose ofslum dwellers' rehabilitation.
Allinfrastructure projects withanenvironmental clearance
areused tocreate more land sothat thisextra land canbeallotted
tobuilders and more money can bemade. Through reclamation,
land iscreated from wasteland near thesea. Then itisgiven the
status ofano-development zone.However, since this 'no
development zone' iscontiguous todevelopment areas, small
construction isallowed. Initially, smaller Floor Space Index (FSI) is
offered ultimately ending inunlimited FSI through government
legislation which paves theway forunlimited construction.
Solutions toenvironmental problems aretricky issues.There
isnowater -tight solution which canbeimplemented that cansolve
these problems easily. Itwould, infact, inthissection liketopoint
outafew heartening indicators forMumbai's environment whose
recognition initself isasolution toMumbai's problems.munotes.in

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101Let’s check ourprogress:
1.Examine theenvironmental and ecological threats faced bycity
ofMumbai
7.5SUMMARY
The term environment means, asurround ing. Environment
isthe totality ofallexternalities that affect thehuman life. In
broader perspective itconsists ofhuman orsocial, political,
economical and physical environment .Italso refers tothecomplex
ofphysical, chemical and biotic factor sthat actupon anorganism
andultimately determines itsform andsurvival.
Study oftherelationships between living things and their
environment. The ecological crises confronting humanity has been
increasingly well documented inrecent times, with particular
attention being paid tothenature and impact ofAnthropogenic
climate change anditsconsequences atglobal level.
7.6QUESTIONS:
1.Define ecology and Human ecology. Examine the
Interconnectedness between different Eco-System.
2.What ismeant byEcological consciousness? Critically highlight
itsimportance indaytodayexistence.
3.Define urban ecology. Trace theorigin and growth ofurban
ecology.
4.Write adetail account onpolitics ofurban ecology inMumbai
with suitable examples.
5.Discuss the various environmental problems and threats to
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1027.7REFERENCES:
AnEnquiry into theBandra -Worli sea-linkThe Indian People's
Tribunal onEnvironment andHuman Rights -July 2001
'Builders swallowing Mumbai's land' by Shiv Kumar -
PERSPECTIVE TheTribune, Chandigarh, August 14, 2005
www.tribuneindia.com/2005/0814/edit.htm#
'Mangroves, India's green armour' byBittu Sehgal
www.san ctuaryasia.com/features/detail featurel
www.godrei.com/GodrejNew/GodreiHome/OurCommitments/Co
rporateCare/Mangrove
"Eyeing the Coastlines," inthe October 15, 1999issue of
DOWN
TOEARTH containing sections of'The Status oftheCoastal
Regulation Zone inMaharastra' byPriya Shah
'Why Mumbai choked' byChandrashekhar Prabhu COVER
STORY -FRONTLINE Volume 22-Issue 17,Aug 13-26,2005
Tree Authority isloaded butrefuses toplant funds ByAnjali
Joseph/TNN Article onPg3-City, Times ofIndia dated May 9,
2005
'Abreather for mangroves' by Lyla Bavadam URBAN
DEVELOPMENT -FRONTLINE Volume 22-Issue 22,Oct 22-
Nov 04,2005
'City's lungs expand by200 acres' byAnshika Mishra Cover
story inDaily News &Analysis (DNA) dated October 18,2005
The following documents have been sourced from theCentre
forEducation &Documentation, Mumbai
Centre forEducation &Documentation Docpost -Habitat August
2006
'Realty boom takesatollonmangroves' Economic Times
August 29,2006
'Reclamation, desilting works choke Mahim creek' Times of
India, April 3,2002munotes.in

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103'Greens oppose relaxation inCRZ rules' Times ofIndia,
February, 2002
Owi Kale; Environmental Problems ofMumbai;St. Xavier’s
College ;CED What ourBrightest Youngsters think!
Das P.K. Ecology Rights and City Development Plans: The
Case ofMumbai;
(https://www.thenatureofcities.com/2014/03/12/ne -ecology -rights -
and-city-development -plans -the-case -of-mumbai/ ),12March 2014

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104Unit -8
ECO FEMINISM
Unit Structure:
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Definition
8.3 History ofEcofeminism
8.4 Branches ofEcofeminism
8.5 Features ofEco Feminism
8.6 Economic Subordination basically means twothings:
8.7 Dualistic thinking inwestern Philosophy andCulture: -
8.8 Perspective onEcofeminism
8.9 Eco-feminism andthepolitics ofidentity inthedeveloping
world -Vandana Shiva
8.10 Spiritual Dimention
8.11 Feminist Environmentalism: Bina Agarwal
8.12 Conclusion
8.13 Questions
8.14 References
8.0OBJECTIVES: -
➢Tostudy theconcept andrelevance ofEofem inism
➢To understand the relationship between women and
environment
➢Tostudy various perspectives onEcofeminism
➢Toevaluate the contribution onVandana Shiva and Bina
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1058.1INTRODUCTION: -
Ecofeminism, also known asecological feminism, isa
branch offeminism which comprehends therelationship between
women and nature. The term ecofeminism isaresult ofnumerous
feminists and environmental social movements tosave nature and
ecology. Inthelate1970s and1980s itcaptured theattention ofthe
masses. The term eco feminism was first used byFrançoise‘d
eaubonne in1974. Ecofeminism relies onthebasic feminist tenets
ofequality between genders. Italso examines theeffect ofgender
categories inorder toshow theways inwhich social norms execute
unequal domination over women andnature.
8.2DEFINITION:
➢Aphilosophical and political theory and movement which
combines ecological concerns with feminist ones, regarding
both asresulting from male domination ofsociety.
➢Amovement ortheory that applies feminist principles and
ideas toecological issues.
8.3HISTORY OFECOFEMINISM:
Ecofeminisn received popularity inthecontexts ofanumber
ofagitations and protests against “environmental degradation”
resulting onaccount ofenvironmental disasters. The 1steco
feminists conference intheUSA oneco feminism inmarch 1980
witness theparticipation ofalargenumber ofwomen. Discussions
were held astodeploy theways inwhich women and environment
could beunited toencourage respect forboth women and
environment and also toexplain how long dependence ofwomen
onenvironment has resulted inoppression ofboth women and
nature. Bythelate1980s, ecofeminism had grown outofitslargely
academic environment andbecome apopular movement.
Some people have called eco feminism asamovement
whereas others have called itasadiscourse movement mostly ofmunotes.in

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106thewhite European toreclaim spiritual relationship with theearth.
Inthelater period eco feminism was ledbyVANDANA SHIVA a
South Asian and Maria Mies aGerman women’s ecofeminist. The
ecofeminist discourse isrelated tothenotion thatboth “women and
nature have bedegraded, dominated and devalued bythewestern
culture.
DEQUADED
WOMEN &NATURE à DOMINAT EDbywestern culture
DEVALUED
8.4BRANCHES OFECOFEMINISM:
Bythelate1980s ecofeminism hadtwobranches viz:
1. Radical ecofeminism
2. Cultural ecofeminism
Radical ecofeminists believed that the dominant patriarchal
ideology ofthesociety equates nature with women inorder to
degrade both. Itexplains how thelabour and resources ofwomen
and nature has been commodified bymales toestablish their
control over them.
Cultural ecofeminists ,promote anassociation between women
and theenvironment. They argue thewomen’s close association
with nature because oftheir gende rroles (e.g., family nurturer and
provider offood) and their biology (e.g., menstruation ,pregnancy ,
and lactation ).They believe that this association makes women
more sensitive tovarious forms ofenvironmental degradations.
They plead foraharmonious relationship between theman and the
nature.
However allfeminists didnotagree with thisdivision ofeco-
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1078.5FEATURES OFECOFEMINISM: -
Problems:
1. Women and nature share aspecial relationship hence
women have animportant stake inending thedomination of
nature andconserving theenvironment.
2. There areimpor tant connections between thedomination of
women theexploitation ofnature.
3. These connection between nature and culture canbetraced
ideologically tothepatriarchal thoughts which makes nature
inferior toculture .since women areidentified with nature
they areconsidered inferior and men identify with culture are
considered superior. Given this relation women have a
special stake inending their own subordination.
Solution: -
This change canbebrought about through areconceptualization of
therelati ons between women, men and nature innon hierarchical
ways and develop anegalitarian (equal) approach. Eco feminism
draw connections between the oppression ofwomen and the
destruction ofnature and trace both “historically” totheemergence
of“western patriarchal science” inthe17thcentury. Eco feminism is
about connectedness and wholeness oftheory and practice. It
asserts thespecial strength and integrity ofevery living thing. Eco
feminism isawomen identified movement. This movement sees
thedestruction oftheearth being ,asfeminist concern tobeaneco
feminist isbasically tobeafeminist and ecologist atthesame time.
Ecological feminism has avery important role toplay because of
thecontext ofeconomic globalization.
Letuscheck:
1. DefineEcofeminism.munotes.in

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1082. Discuss itsBranches andfeatures.
8.6ECONOMIC SUBORDINATION BASICALLY MEANS TWO
THINGS:
1.Women have been subordinate because they have been
associated with household anddomestic work.
2.Economic growth has defined asthatwhich takes place
outside the household. Throughout history and inmost
societies, even today womens house work istreated asnon
work. The defining ofwomen’s housework asnowork is
related tothe universalization ofmodern economics. The
definition ofmeasuring GNP isbased ontreating certain work
asproducing andcertain activities asnonproductive. Basically
says ifyou areworking inthehousehold then you arenot
producing ifyou areconsuming what you areproducing you
arenotproducing. This notonly wipes outwomen’s work but
also wipes out self reliant, sustainable activity economic
globalization. Therefore says that ifyouareproducing foryour
own consumption asacountry, you arenotproducing unless
youaretrading andthen youarecontr ibuting togrowth.
8.7DUALISTIC THINKING INWESTERN PHILOSOPHY
AND CULTURE: -
The dualistic thinking that has shaped somuch ofthe
Eurocentric world view isperhaps the central concern ofeco
feminist philosophical and political analysis. The Eurocentr icnotion
isthat masculine isassociated with rationality ,spirit ,culture ,
autonomy ,assertiveness and thepublic sphere while thefeminine
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109respectively and private sphere. Masculine isconsidered tobe
superior tothat which isassociated with thefeminine. The latter
exits intheservice oftheformer ,therelationship between thetwo
isinherently agonistic (strain).
8.8PERSPECTIVES ONECOFEMINISM:
Different ecofeminists have deploye ddifferent ways of
analyzing the relationship between women and nature, its
exploitation and the means toovercome this oppression. The
devaluation ofnature carries along with itadevaluation of
subsistence living. This isintrinsically linked towomen and their
work and productivity. Similarly, one can draw aparallel between
the violence against nature and violence against women. The
relationship between women and environment isanongoing area
ofenquiry, intervention, and debate summarised intwo
differing points ofview put forward bytwo well know women,
Vandana Shiva, aneco-feminist and Bina Agarwal, afeminist -
ecologist.
Letuscheck:
1.What isneant byeconomic subordination?
2.Elaborate onDualistic thinking inwestern philosophy and
culture.munotes.in

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1103.Elaborate onvarious perspectives onEcofeminism.
8.9ECO FEMINISM AND THE POLITICS OFIDENTITY
INTHE DEVELOPING WORLD -VANDANA SHIVA
There has been reluctance todiscuss theeffects ofmodern
technologies ontheworking lives ofwomen even among activists
and scholar indeveloping world. The inappropriateness ofmodern
western technologies forthe 3rdworld countries ispowerfully
arranged byecofeminist such asVANDANA SHIVA.
VANDANA SHIVA along with MARIA MIES gave usavisionof
new technology isconceptualized from aprescriptive of
subsistence. This perspective means not only achange inthe
various accepted and social economic division oflabour butalso is
aprocess ofsubstituting money orcommodity relationship by
principles such asreciprocity, sharing, caring and respect forthe
individual. Hence subsistence perspective can berealized only
within anature ofrelatively stable human relations’
Women inthe3rdworld welcome modernization aslong as
they can have somesayinthemanner inwhich technology which
isaffecting the quality oftheir working and their family lifeis
adopted. Women usually have insignificant powers and areusually
bysociety, confined bytradition.
According toShiva Women’s liberation ispossible only ifwe
safeguard allthelifeofallontheplanet earth from patriarchy and
capitalism. Shiva and other ecofeminists areexplicitly anti-warand
anti-capitalist, because both war and capitalism are seen as
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111For majority ofthe world deforestation ofHimalaya and
patenting ofseeds and tree may notborelated tofeminism forthe
women ofthearea “environment” istheplace where they live, and
itencompasses everything thataffects their lives.
The dualistic world view prevailed insociety devides nature in
twoopposing parts whereby humans areperceived asdetached to
nature. The technology isconsidered superior toindigenous
knowledge, men towomen andhuman toanimals etc.
Thus Shiva promotes aworld view based onpartnership and
cooperation. Shiva’s ecofeminist perspective makes nodistinction
between “basic needs” (food, clothing, shelter) and “higher needs”
(freedom andknowledge).
8.10SPIRITUAL DIMEN SION:-
Inaddition ofthephilosophical and thepolitical aspe cteco
feminism contains aspiritual dimension ecofeminist aresituated in
allthemajor religious and most ofthem see agood reason for
women imagery inreference tothedivine. Eco feminist consider
nature asafeminine principle (prakriti) which ischaracterized by
creativity, activity ,productivity ,continuity between human and
nature ,sanctity oflifeinnature ,connectedness and interrelation
ofallbeing including men. The term “tera matter” earth asasymbol
ofGreek mother isoften used, tojustify nature feminine qualities.
Letuscheck:
Examine indetail theViews ofVandana Shiva onEcofeminism.munotes.in

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1128.11FEMINIST ENVIRONMENTALISM: BINA
AGARWAL
Bina Agarwal iscritical ofShiva saying that itisavery
unitary view ofThird World women. For her, thepredominantly
Hindu conception ofpreserving nature asrelated tothefeminine
principle ofnurturing and creativity isalien towomen ofsome other
religions. Shiva, she feels, ignores thefact that women, likemen,
aresocially struct ured and that their responses tonature isaresult
oftheir specific socialisation.
Agarwal would argue forafeminist environmentalism as
opposed toeco-feminism. She focuses onthematerial reasons for
the connection between poor peasants and tribal women with
nature. She feels that because women have historically been
associated with theresponsibility forcultivation, collecting fuel and
fodder inseveral hilland tribal communities, they seem tohave a
closer linktonature. Thus, theprivatisation ofrural resources and
destruction oftheenvironment affect women differently depending
ontheir class, caste, ethnic andeconomic positions.
Bina Agarwal’s view oneco-feminism takes away the
suggestion that the women -nature closeness isnaturally or
biologically ordained orthat ecological sensibility isanessentially
feminine principle .The view calls foraspecific choice ofan
environmental sensitive economics, society, and culture. Itsays
that thefactthat, women, especially poor women aremore likely to
accept such aview isbecause oftheir historical and social
conditioning. Italso suggests that one does nothave toaccept the
essentially subjugated position that women have had tosuffer in
exchange forsuch closeness tonature.
While critiques have come from various fields BINA
AGARWAL supports theidea offeminist environmen talism instead
ofeco feminism. She feels that the ideological ,spiritual
explanation ofwomen isnotahomogenous category and differs in
caste ,class ,race and sanctity. Eco feminism istrying to
essentialize therelationship asunchangeable and irred ucible. Also
theHindu religious explanation ofPrakriti asthefeminine quality ismunotes.in

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113notapplicable toother religious belief feminist environmentalism on
theother hand tries look intoeconomic ,political and social factors
contributing toeconomic degrad able and role women played in
combating (fighting) them.
Letuscheck:
1.Write note onFeminist Environmentalism ofBina Agarwal.
8.12CONCLUSION: -
Insummary eco feminism isamovement that focuses
attention onthehistorical linkage between denigration ofnature
and female seeks toshed light on.What both Agarwal and Shiva
agree onisthat environmental concerns are notelitist butare
central tostruggles ofpoor peoples, especially women, forsurvival
andforliving spaces.
8.13QUESTI ONS:
1.What ismeant byEcofeminism. Discuss itssignificance in
contemporary society.
2.Define Ecofeminism. Elaborate onvarious perspectives onit.
3.Examine indetail the contribution ofVandana Shiva to
Ecofeminism.
4.Briefly explain theFeminist Environmenta lism propagated by
Bina Agarwal.munotes.in

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1148.14REFERENCES
(http://www.doccentre.net/docsweb/Gender/chapters/chapter11.htm)
Callicott, J.Baird. Earth ’sInsights. Berkeley: University of
California Press. 1994.
Democracy Now! AnHour with Vandana Shiva. 27November
2003.
http://www.democracynow.org/2003/11/27/an_hour_with_vanda
na_shiva_indian .
Holden, Madronna. WS 450 Ecofeminism Class notes. Oregon
State University. 2009.
Mies, Maria and Vandana Shiva. Ecofeminism. Halifax:
Fernwood Publications. 1993.
Navdanya. http://www.navdanya.org .
The Complete Marquis Who’s Who (R)Biographies. Marquis
Who ’sWho LLC. 2008. Lexis -Nexis. 18 Januar y2009
http://www.lexisnexis.com.proxy.library .
oregonstate.edu/us/lnacademic/search/loadForm.do.
Shiva, Vandana, ed. Close toHome: Women Reconnect
Ecology, Health and Development Worldwide. Philadelp hia:
New Society Publishers. 1994.
Shiva, Vandana. Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and
Development. London: Zed Books. 1989.
(https://www.unive.it/media/allega to/dep/n20 -
2012/Ricerche/Casi/11_Rao_Ecofeminism.pdf )Ecofeminism at
theCrossroads inIndia: AReview byManisha Rao*
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115MODEL QUESTION PAPER
SEMESTER II
Note : 1)Attempt any five questions.
2)All questions carry equal marks (20 marks each)
1.Attempt Any Two sub Questions
a.Define the. Term Socialization & E xplain any 2 agencies of
Socialization (10 Marks)
b.Discuss George Herbert Mead’s Theory of Mind, Self &
Society (10 Marks)
c.Explain the process of Politica l Socialization. (10 Marks)
2.Attempt Any Two sub Questions
a.Explain Crime and Discuss Howard Becker’s Labelling
Theory (10 Marks)
b.Explain measures taken by the Government to prevent
Women & Ch ildren Trafficking (10 Marks)
c.“Crime has become increasingly globalised problem”
Comment. (10 Marks)
3.Attempt Any Two sub Question
a.Define tourism and explain rural touris m with examples.
(10 Marks)
b.Explain tourism and discuss its advantages &
disadvantages. (10 Marks)
c. Explain the term eco tourism. Elaborate on need for eco -
tourism in India with examples. (10 Marks)
4.Attempt Any Two sub Questions
a.Expla in the importance of ecological consciousness
(10 Marks)
b.Define ecofeminism. Elaborate the views of Vandana Shiva
on ecofeminism. (10 Marks)
c.Define and explain the importance of urban ecology.
(10 M arks)
5.Write Short Note on ANY TWO of the following: (20 Marks)
a.Gender socialisation
b.Structural strain theory
c.Types of cybercrime
d.Sustainable development
munotes.in